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English  i 

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England—] 
Pen  and  1 

—Smith  & 

Drawing. 
Natural  ^Science.— Norton  &,  Porter's  First  Book— Peck's  Ganot's  Philosophy— Porter'i 

Chemistry— McIntyre'3  Astronomy— Page's  Geology— Jarvis'  Physiology— Wood's  Botany— 

Chambers'  Zoology— Peck's  Mechanics— Baetlett's  College  Philosophy. 
Important  Works  also  are  Pujol's  French  Class  Book— Dwight's  Mythology— Hunting- 
ton's  Fine  Arts— Champlin's  Political  Economy— Mansfield's  Government  Manual— Alden's 

Ethics— Brooks'  Manual  of  Devotion— Tracy's  School  Record,  <fec. 
The  Teacher's  Library  consists  of  over  30  volujmss  of  strictly  professional  literature,  asPAOS^s 

Theory  and  Practice— Holbrook's  Normal  Methods— Northend's  Teacher's  Assistant,  Ac. 


A  DESCRIPTIVE  CATALOGUE  of  all  these  and  many  more  may  be  obtained  by  enclosing  a 
stamp  to  the  Publishers, 

A.  2.  BARIES  k  COHPAIY, 

National  Educational  Publishers, 
111   &  113  WILLIAM  STREET,  NEW  YOBK. 


TP  f  ORMAN  SERIES  IN  MODERN  UNGUA6E. 

h  Complete  Course  in  German. 

By  JAMES  H.  WORMAN,  AM. 

EMBRACING 

G-ERMIAHSr    COI^Y-BOOKS,  Gr'E.'R-NLAJSi-    ECHO. 

EST  PREPABASIOIT, 

HISTORY    OW    GJ-ER]yLA.l>^    LITKJRJ^TTJRK, 

G}^ER]vi^:]sr  j^is^ny  EnsronLiiSH  lexicon*. 

I.  TSE  GERMAN  GRAMMAJtS  of  Worman  are  widely  preferred  on  ac- 
count of  their  clear,  explicit  method  (on  the  conversation  plan),  introducing  a  system 
of  analogy  and  comparison  with  the  learners'  own  language  and  others  commonly 
Btudicd. 

The  arts  of  speaking,  of  understanding  the  spoken  language,  and  of  correct  pronun- 
ciation, are  treated  with  great  success. 

The  new  classifications  of  nouns  and  of  irregular  verbs  are  of  great  value  to  the 
pupil.  The  use  of  heavy  type  to  indicate  etymological  changes,  is  new.  The  Vocabu- 
lary is  synonymical—sliio  a  new  feature. 

jr.  WORMAN* S  GERMAN  READER  contains  progressive  selections 
from  a  wide  range  of  the  very  best  German  authors,  including  three  complete  plays, 
which  are  usualfy  purchased  in  separate  form  for  advanced  students  who  have  com- 
pleted the  ordinary  Reader. 

It  has  Biographies  of  eminent  authors.  Notes  after  the  text,  References  to  all  Ger- 
man Grammars  in  common  use,  and  an  adequate  Vocabulary;  also,  Exercises  for 
translation  into  the  German. 

III.  WORMAN' S  GERMAN  ECHO  {Deutscftes  Echo)  is  entirely  a  new 
thing  in  this  country.  It  presents  familiar  colloquial  exercises  without  translation, 
and  will  teach  fluent  conversation  in  a  few  months  of  diligent  study. 

No  other  method  will  ever  make  the  student  at  home  in  a  foreign  language.  By  this 
he  thinks  in,  as  well  as  speaks  it.  For  the  time  being  he  is  a  German  through  and 
through.  The  laborious  process  of  translating  his  thoughts  no  longer  impedes  free 
unembarrassed  utterance. 


f  OMAN'S  COMPLETE  FRENCH  COHESE 

IS  INAUGURATED  BY 

Or,  "French  Echo;"  on  a  plan  identical  with  the  German  Echo  described  above. 
This  will  be  followed  in  due  course  by  the  other  volumes  of 

THE   IPRKTsTCH   SKRIE^S, 

A   eOMPZETE  GRAMMAR,  \A    FRENCH    READER, 

AN  ELEMENTARY  GRAMMAR,  \  A    FRENCH    LEXICON, 
A  HISTORY  OF  FRENCH  IITERATURE, 


WORMAN'S    WORKS 

are  adopted  as  fast  as  published  by  many  of  the  best  institutions  of  the  country.    In 
completeness,  adaptation,  and  homogeneity  for  consistent  courses  of  instruction,  they 

are  simply 

TJIVXlIVAlLiEr>. 


HISTORY 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION 


HISTORY 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION, 

FEOItf 

THE  EARLIEST  TIMES  TO  THE  PRESENT. 

INTENPEP   AS 

a  manual  for  teachers  and  students. 
By  PHILOBIBLIUS. 

WITH    AN    INTKODUOTION    BY 

HENRY  BARNARD,  LLD., 

OHAKOELIiOB  OF  THE   UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIIT. 


A.    S     BARNES    &   COMPANY, 
NEW  YORK  AND  CHICAGO. 

1874. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Coogress,  in  the  year  I8B9, 

Br  A.  S.  BARNES  &,  BURR. 

btlM  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  t&e 

Southern  District  of  New  York. 


SDUCATIOiN,  DEiFg:. 


ar 


PEEFACE. 


In  oflFering  to  the  public  the  accompanying 
"  History  of  Education,"  the  writer  begs  leave 
to  say,  that  it  has  been  his  object  rather  to 
prepare  a  manual  for  the  student,  than  a  work 
of  greater  pretension  for  the  mere  literary 
man.  The  field  is  almost  wholly  untrodden 
in  our  own  language,  the  very  brief  and  im- 
perfect little  treatise  of  Schmidt  being,  it  is 
believed,  the  only  work  professedly  devoted 
to  this  topic,  which  is  accessible  to  those  who 
read  English  only.  The  works  of  Fritz,  De 
Riancy,  De  Viriville,  Schwarz,  and  Memeyer, 
in  French  and  German,  are  valuable ;  but  of 
these,  only  that  of  De  Viriville,  which  is  con- 
fined to  European,  and  particularly  to  French 


6  PEEFACE. 

education,  is  at  all  recent;  and  all  of  them 
view  the  subject  too  exclusively  from  the 
continental  stand-point.  Hallam's  History  of 
Literature  is  invaluable  for  the  period  of 
which  it  treats,  and  throws  more  light  on  the 
educational  condition  of  Great  Britain,  up  to 
the  eighteenth  century,  than  any  other  work. 
The  complete  history  of  education  in  the 
United  States  is  yet  to  be  written ;  let  us 
hope  that  the  life  and  health  of  the  eminent 
scholar  *  who  has  so  long  been  engaged  in  its 
preparation,  may  be  spared,  till  he  shall  have 
completed  a  work  which  cannot  fail  greatly 
to  enhance  his  already  exalted  reputation. 
Meantime,  we  have  been  able  to  glean  from 
the  pages  of  the  American  Journal  of  Edu- 
cation^ and  other  educational  periodicals,  suffi- 
'  cient  facts  to  answer  the  purpose  of  our 
manual. 

*  Hon.  Henry  Barnard. 


PKEFACE.  7 

The  preparation  of  this  manual  has  been  a 
work  of  severe  and  protracted  toil ;  it  would 
have  been  far  easier  to  have  made  it  much 
larger ;  and  it  might  have  suited  a  few  of  our 
readers  better,  had  we  given  references  to  the 
authorities  quoted,  at  the  foot  of  each  page ; 
but,  mindful  of  our  purpose,  we  have  studied 
condensation,  and,  while  verifying  with  the 
utmost  care  every  reference,  have  deemed  a 
bibliographical  list  of  authorities,  at  the  close 
of  the  work,  sufficient,  and  more  unpretending 
than  a  pompous  array  of  foot-notes,  which 
should  refer  to  works,  many  of  which  not  one 
reader  in  a  thousand  could  consult. 

The  writer  cannot,  in  justice  to  his  own 
feelings,  close  this  preface  without  acknowl- 
edging his  obligations  to  Hon.  Henry  Barnard 
for  many  kindnesses  received  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  volume ;  and  especially  for  free 
access  to  his  valuable  library,  the  most  exten- 


PKEFACE. 


sive,  in  this  specialty,  in  the  United  States. 
Much  of  what  is  valuable  in  the  work,  is  due 
to  this  kindly  assistance ;  for  any  faults  of 
style,  or  errors  of  fact,  which  may  be  found  in 
it,  the  writer  is  alone  responsible. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Definition. — Intellectual  and  physical  training  in  the  antedilxx* 
vian  period. — The  ages  after  the  Flood. — Circumstances  favoring 
civilization,  and  intellectual  development. — Education  in  India. 
— Caste. — Education  denied  to  the  lower  castes,  and  to  women. .     25 

CHAPTER  II. 

Education  in  Egypt  and  Ethiopia.— Caste.— Instruction  exoteric 
and  esoteric. — Females  of  the  higher  castes  educated.— Educa- 
tion confined  to  the  higher  castes. — The  masses  degraded  and 
oppressed. — Egypt  the  seat  of  the  highest  learning  at  a  later 
period. — Education  among  the  Chinese. — Schools.— System  of 
instruction. — Education  a  necessary  qualification  for  high  official 
station. — Literary  honors  and  degrees. — Much  of  this  education 
only  intended  to  develop  the  memory. — Chinese  keys,  for  ex- 
aminations       35 

CHAPTER  III. 

The  Japanese. — Their  scientific  discoveries. — Education  of  prosti- 
tutes.— Ancient  Babylonians  and  Assyrians. — Evidence  of  their 
educational  condition  alForded  by  recent  discoveries. — Ancient 
Persians. — Parsees  or  Fire  Worshipers. — Magi.— Their  position. 
— Xenophon's  account  of  education  in  the  time  of  Cyrus. — The 
four  classes. — This  education  confined  to  those  possessing  some 
property. — Female  degradation. — Little  accomplished  for  educa- 
tion by  Zartusht  or  Zoroaster 45 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Hebrews. — ^Beauty  of  their  literature. — ^Evidence  it  affords  of 
extensive  acquaintance  with  natural  science. — Instruction  among 
the  higher  classes. — Learning  of  Solomon  and  some  of  his  aaso 
1» 


10  CONTENTS. 

ciates. — Edncation  mostly  confined  to  the  family. — No  schools, 
properly  so  called,  among  them,  till  near  the  Christian  era.— 
Schools  of  the  Eabbins 65 

CHAPTER  V. 

The  Greeks. — Influence  of  their  systems  of  education  on  other 
nations. — The  Homeric  period. — Ulysses,  Achilles,  and  Fatro- 
clus. — The  period  of  the  Lawgivers. — Lycurgus. — Brief  bio- 
graphical sketch. — The  Spartan  system. — More  limited  in  its 
application  than  generally  supposed. — Solon. — Peculiarities  of 
his  system.— Instruction  confined  to  the  higher  classes,  and 
forbidden  to  slaves  and  women,  except  courtesans. — Pythagoras. 
— His  extensive  travels. — The  philosophic  character  of  his  in- 
structions.— His  course  exoteric  and  esoteric. — General  view  of 
his  system. — Its  exemplification  in  some  of  his  followers 61 

CHAPTER  VI. 

The  Greeks  continued. — Socrates. — Eminently  an  educator. — His 
method. — The  practical  results  more  fully  developed  in  the 
teachings  of  Plato. — The  theories  of  education  of  the  latter  as 
developed  in  his  "Republic,"  his  "  Sophistes,"  and  other  works. 
— Aristotle,  the  wisest  of  the  Grecian  teachers. — His  "Natural 
History."  —  His  "Politics."  —  Successors  of  Aristotle.  —  The 
schools  of  Athens  and  Alexandria. — Review  of  Greek  education.    75 

CHAPTER  VII. 

The  Romans. — Early  education  mainly  moral  and  physical. — In- 
troduction of  Greek  instruction. — Education  under  the  Empire. 
— Tendencies  of  the  Roman  less  intellectual  than  those  of  the 
Greek. — Female  education  not  general. — Quintilian. — Varro. — 
The  orphan  schools  of  Antoninus  Pius. — The  Druids. — Little 
known  of  their  system  of  education 89 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Education  among  the  Arabs  and  Saracens. — Period  prior  to 
Mohammed. — Influence  of  Mohammed. — The  Ommiades  and 
Abassides. — Tiie  translation  of  Aristotle. — Spain,  the  principal 
seat  of  Saracen  learning. — Its  extent. — Mexican  provision  for 
education. — The  Calmecac. — Picture  writing.^— Their  calendar. 
— The  Council  of  Music,  and  its  duties. — Mexican  poetry. — The 
Peruvians. — Their  intellectual  culture  less  extensive  than  the 
Mexican. — The  Quipu. — The  ballads  of  the  haravecs. — Agricul- 
ture among  the  Peruvians 101 


CONTENTS.  11 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Education  since  the  Cheistian  era.— The  character  and  influence 
of  the  teachings  of  Christ  and  of  his  Apostles. — The  influence  of 
Christianity  in  modifying  the  family  relation,  and  the  social  and 
intellectual  position  of  woman. — Testimony  of  Libanius. — Early 
Christian  education  mainly  domestic. — School  at  Alexandria. — 
Pantaenus. — Origen. — Schools  at  Cesarea. — At  Antioch,  Edessa, 
Rome,  Carthage,  &c. — The  schools  for  Catechumens  merely  of 
a  religious  character 121 

CHAPTER  X. 

Period  of  Constantino  and  his  successors. — The  Western  Empire 
given  over  to  barbarism. — Corruption  of  the  Latin  language. — 
Capella. — Analysis  of  his  ISatyricon. — Cassiodorus. — Worth 
lessness  of  his  text-books. — Bishop  Isidore  of  Seville. — Contents 

.  of  his  Origines. — This  regarded  as  the  most  learned  book  of  the 
dark  ages. — The  cathedral  and  monastic  schools. — Meagerness 
of  instruction  in  them. — Scarcity  of  parchment  and  papyrus. 
— Palimpsests 131 

CHAPTER  XI. 

Education  in  the  British.  Isles. — Charlemagne,  the  most  efficient 
friend  of  education  at  this  period. — His  invitation  to  Alcuin. 
— His  Capitularies. — Services  of  Alcuin  in  promoting  education. 
— Paul  the  Deacon,  Peter  of  Pisa,  Clement  the  Hibernian,  and 
Raban  Maur  also  rendered  valuable  service. — Alfred  the  Great, 
the  educational  reformer  of  Britain. — Saracen  learning  at  this 
period. — Eminent  Jewish  scholars  of  the  time 141 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Universities  in  Italy  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries. — De- 
partments of  law  and  medicine  established. — Schools  of  the 
Benedictine  and  other  monastic  orders.— Cause  of  the  establish- 
ment of  universities. — The  scholastic  philosophy  and  its  found- 
ers.— Its  influence. — Condition  of  education  in  the  Eastern 
Empire. — The  efforts  of  the  dynasty  of  Comnenus  for  its  im- 
provement.— Downfall  of  the  Eastern  Empire. — Reflex  influence 
upon  Russia 151 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Scholasticism  and  mysticism  in  Western  Europe.— Course  of  study 
in  the  universities  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 
—Colleges. — Establishment  of  gymnasia  and  trivial  schools  in 


12  CONTENTS. 

Germany. — Bacchantes  and  A.  B.  C.  shooters. — Hardships  of  the 
latter.— The  introduction  of  linen  and  cotton  paper. — Text-books 
of  the  period. — Severity  of  the  school  discipline. — Eminent 
friends  of  education  among  the  mystics. — Female  education 
much  neglected  during  this  period 161 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

Chivalry,  and  its  influence  upon  education. — The  celebration  of 
the  deeds  of  its  heroes  in  song. — Troubadours,  Trouveres,  and 
Minnesingers. — Chansons  and  sirventes. — Eevival  of  literature  in 
Italy  in  the  fourteenth  century. — Formative  influence  on  the 
languages  of  Europe. — Emigration  of  Chrysoloras  and  other 
eminent  Greek  teachers  to  Southern  Europe.— Prevalence  of  the 
study  of  classic  Greek. — Vittorino  da  Feltre,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  teachers  of  the  age. — The  patronage  of  letters  by  the 
Medici  and  other  Italian  sovereigns. — Eminent  scholars  and 
teachers  in  Italy. — Gerard  Groot  and  the  Brethren  of  the  Com- 
mon Life. — Establishment  of  the  schools  of  Eton  and  Winchester 
in  England 171 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Moral  condition  of  Europe  at  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century 
and  the  commencement  of  the  fifteenth. — Invention  of  the  art  of 
printing. — Discovery  of  America. — Influence  of  these  events  in 
promoting  education. — Eminent  scholars  and  teachers  in  Ger- 
many in  the  fifteenth  century. — The  dawn  of  the  Reformation  in 
the  sixteenth  century. — Erasmus,  Luther,  Melancthon,  Zuing- 
lius,  and  Calvin  as  educators. — Abundance  of  Luther's  labors  for 
the  general  diff'usion  of  education 183 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

John  Sturm,  the  most  eminent  teacher  in  Germany  in  the  six- 
teenth century. — Trotzendorf  and  other  eminent  cotemporaries 
of  Sturm. — Progress  of  education  in  England. — The  organization 
of  schools  and  a  system  of  education  by  the  Jesuits. — Principal 
features  of  this  system.— M.  Villers'  characterization  of  it. — Text- 
books used  by  the  Jesuits. — The  good  results  they  did  accom- 
plish.— Decline  of  the  best  Protestant  schools 193 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

The  Novum  Organon  of  Lord  Bacon. — The  era  of  the  Classicists. 
—Rabelais,  Montaigne. — Peter  Ramus  and  the  Aristotelian  phi- 
losophy.— Progress  in  the  higher  mathematics  and  in  physical 
Bcience. — The  improvements  in  geographical  science. — Stephen's 


CONTENTS.  .13 

Thesaurv^. — Constantin,  Calepin,  and  Scapula's  dictionaries. — 
Wolfgang  Ratich. — His  new  plans,  and  their  faults. — John 
Amos  Comenius,  deserving  of  high  honor  for  his  labors  in  the 
cause  of  education. — His  Janua  Linguarum  Beserata. — His  Orbis 
Sensualium  Pictus,  the  first  illustrated  school-book. — His  other 
educational  works 20S 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

The  Jansenists,  and  their  labors  in  the  cause  of  education. — Emi- 
nent classical  scholars  of  the  seventeenth  century. — Progress  of 
literature  in  Europe  during  the  century. — The  School  of  Pietists. 
— Fenelon. — His  Adventures  of  Telemachus. — Spener. — The  Uni- 
versity of  Halle. — Francke. — His  philanthropic  zeal. — The  or- 
phan school,  and  the  institutions  connected  with  it. — Want  of 
classic  training,  a  defect  in  these  schools. — Tendency  to  Phari- 
seeism  subsequently  developed 213 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

Progress  of  education  in  the  New  England  colonies,  m  tlie  seven- 
teenth century. — ^Legal  provision  for  the  establishment  of  schools 
and  colleges  in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut. — Legislation  of 
New  York  for  the  same  end. — Other  colonies. — Scotland  the  first 
country  in  Europe  to  establish  a  system  of  common  schools. — De 
la  Salle  and  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools. — Statistics  of 
these  schools  in  1856 223 

CHAPTER  XX. 

The  Humanists,  and  their  system  of  instruction. — Eminent  Hu- 
manist teachers. — J.  J.  Rousseau. — Influence  of  his  "  Emile'^ 
upon  education. — John  Locke. — John  B.  Basedow. — His  early 
career.  —  The  "  Elementar  -  Werh^^  —  The  Philanthropinum. — 
Small  success  of  his  personal  teachings. — The  impulse  given  to 
education  by  his  efforts. —  Wblke  and  the  other  successors  of  Base- 
dow.— Count  Zinzendorf. — Humanitarian  institutions  devoted 
to  the  education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  the  blind,  juvenile 
offenders,  &c. — Special  schools  of  commerce,  &c. — Eminent 
German  writers  on  education 2)1 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

Pestalozzi. — Abstract  of  his  views  on  education,  as  developed  in 
his  works. — Objections  to  some  of  his  positions. — His  own  im- 
perfect success  as  a  teacher. — Prevalence  of  the  Pestalozzian 
system  at  the  present  day. — Other  educational  reformers  cotem- 
porary  with  Pestalozzi.— Fellenberg,  Jacotot,  Felbiger,  Father 


14:  CONTENTS. 

Girard,  and  Lancaster. — Eeview  of  their  several  methods. — 
Adoption  of  the  Method  of  Sagan,  introduced  by  Felbiger,  in 
Austria. — The  Lancasterian  system. — At  one  time  prevalent  in 
England  and  America. — Its  defects. — The  labors  of  Oberlin,  the 
brothers  Zeller,  Vehrli,  and  Wichern,  in  promoting  education. 
— Cheering  prospects  of  the  future 241 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

Review  of  the  present  condition  of  education  in  the  principal  coun- 
tries of  the  world. — England.— Scotland,  Ireland,  France,  Spain, 
and  Portugal. — The  States  of  the  Church,  Sardinia,  Tuscany, 
Naples,  Turkey,  Greece,  Eussia,  Lapland,  and  Einmark. — Nor- 
way, Sweden,  and  Denmark , 255 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

The  German  States.— Prussia,  Saxony,  and  Wurtemberg.— Austria, 
Bohemia,  Croatia,  and  the  Austrian  Archduchies  in  Italy. — Bava- 
ria, Mecklenburg,  and  the  smaller  States. — Eminent  living  and 
recent  German  writers  on  education. — Afkica.— ^Egypt  and  the 
tributaries  of  the  Porte. — Algiers,  Sierra  Leone„  Liberia,  Cape 
Colony. — Other  portions  of  the  African  continent. — Asia. — Per- 
sia, Independent  and  Chinese  Tartary,  Afghanistan  and  Beloo- 
chistan,  Siberia,  China,  and  Japan.— Thibet,  Siam,  Tonquin, 
Burmah,  Malacca,  the  Karens  and  Shy  ens,  India,  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  and  the  Pacific  islands 269 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

North  and  South  America. — Canada  East  and  West. — United 
States. — Northern  and  Southern  States. — Hispano-American 
States :  Mexico,  Central  America,  &c. — "West  India  Islands : 
Cuba,  Porto  Eico,  Jamaica,  Trinidad,  Hayti,  &c. — South  Amer- 
ica.— New  Grenada,  Venezuela,  Ecuador. — French,  Dutch,  and 
British  Guiana. — Brazil,  the  Argentine  Confederation,  Buenos 
Ayres,  Uruguay,  and  Paraguay. — Chile,  Bolivia,  and  Peru 279 

Statistical  Tables 293 

Bibliography 297 

Index 301 


INTRODUGTION. 


In  an  age  so  peculiarly  and  eagerly  progressive 
as  the  present,  the  profound  saying  of  Solomon, 
that  "There  is  no  new  thing  under  the  sun,"  is 
eminently  liable  to  be  forgotten ;  and  investigators 
and  experimenters,  absorbed  in  what  they  are 
doing,  and  still  more  in  what  they  desire  and  hope 
to  do,  utterly  forget  that  any  thing  has  ever  been 
done  before. 

Yet  no  subject,  now  interesting  or  important,  can 
be  adequately  understood,  or  further  investigated, 
unless  proper  pains  be  first  bestowed  upon  its 
history.  The  truth  of  this  proposition  is  so  clear, 
in  relation  to  mechanic  arts  and  the  various  depart- 
ments of  natural  science,  that  it  scarcely  needs 
illustration.  The  machinist,  for  example,  is  com- 
pelled, by  the  very  course  of  the  labors  of  his 
apprenticeship,  to  master  those  results  of  all  the 
centuries  of  thought,  of  imagination,  and  of  tireless 
,exertion,  which  are  so  wonderfully  exemplified  in 


16  .-,    *'1NTE0DUCTI0N. 

every  great  workshop.  He  cannot,  in  the  nature 
of  things,  re-invent  and  construct  for  sale  the 
imperfect  steam-engine  of  Newcomen,  or  the  com- 
paratively clumsy  early  power-looms  of  Arkwright. 
The  watchmaker  could  not  sell  clepsydras,  nor 
"Nuremberg  eggs;"  he  absolutely  must  avail  him- 
self of  the  results  of  that  long  train  of  ingenious 
and  skillful  men,  whose  latest  representatives  are 
our  own  Yankee  clock  and  watch  manufacturers. 
In  these  cases  there  is  neither  doubt  nor  danger. 
The  tendency  of  trade,  the  weight  of  gain,  an  influ- 
ence as  universal  and  unerring  as  gravitation, 
determines  the  mechanic.  In  the  market,  it  is  only 
the  latest  improvement  which  commands  a  sale ; 
and  the  steady  force  of  the  law  of  supply  and 
demand,  and  the  sleepless  instinct  of  gain,  is  a 
suiRcient  warrant  that,  while  superfluities  are 
dropped,  and  improvements  are  adopted,  no  re- 
invention of  an  exploded  contrivance,  nor  retro- 
gression to  an  older  and  more  imperfect  condition, 
will  be  allowed. 

The  same  is  true  in  the  opposite  pursuit  of  the 
most  abstract  philosophy.  It  is  impossible  to  con- 
ceive of  any  person's  attempting  to  put  forth  a 
system  of  philosophical  belief,  who  shall  not  first 
have  made,  not  perhaps  the  best  use,  but  at  all 


INTRODUCTION.  17 

events  his  own  use,  of  the  whole  long  series  of 
philosophers,  from  Aristotle  to  Sir  William  Hamil- 
ton. For  the  grade  of  intellect  and  cultivation 
which  admits  him  to  conceive  of  such  a  system, 
renders  any  other  supposition  impossible.  And  no 
preface  is  more  unfailing,  or  more  determinate  in 
substance,  than  the  historical  view  in  which  the 
modern  philosopher  upsets  the  theories  of  all  his 
predecessors,  creating,  like  an  Asiatic  conqueror,  a 
wide-spread  desert  in  which  to  erect  his  throne. 

There  is  no  department  of  human  exertion,  how- 
ever, in  which  this  preliminary  historical  knowledge 
is  so  necessary  as  in  education.  For  this  there  is 
both  a  general  and  a  special  reason.  The  education 
of  a  people  bears  a  constant  and  most  pre-eminently 
influential  relation  to  its  attainments  and  excel- 
lences— ^physical,  mental,  and  moral.  Tlie  national 
education  is  at  once  a  cause  and  an  effect  of  the 
national  character ;  and,  accordingly,  the  history  of 
education  affords  the  only  ready  and  perfect  key  to 
the  history  of  the  human  race,  and  of  each  nation 
in  it, — an  unfailing  standard  for  estimating  its 
advance  or  retreat  upon  the  line  of  human  progress. 

But  the  special  reason  just  alluded  to,  is  yet  more 
in  point  at  this  time.  It  is,  that  there  is  no  depart- 
ment of  human  exertion  whose  annals  are  more 


18  INTEODUCTION. 

brilliant  with  displays  of  industry,  talent,  and 
genius,  wlietlier  successful  or  unsuccessful ;  and 
consequently  none  in  whicli  a  reference  to  the  past 
will  afford  such  abundant  materials  for  improve- 
ment in  the  present. 

In  our  own  country  all  this  pre-eminent  truth, 
regarding  education,  is  again  still  more  pre-emi- 
nently true.  ISTo where  among  civilized  nations  is 
the  business  of  education  pursued  with  such  utter 
lack  of  system,  such  complete,  unsympathizing, 
independent,  self-dependent  isolation  of  effort, — 
though  yet  with  a  fervor,  devotion,  energy,  and 
natural  capacity  almost  equally  unrivaled. 

Yet  our  system  of  education  has,  nevertheless, 
been  so  universally  and  efficiently  successful  as  a 
praGtical  system — or,  to  state  more  correctly  what 
is  a  cotemporary  rather  than  a  resulting  fact,  the 
men  and  communities  trained  under  it  have  been, 
and  are,  characterized  by  so  many  excellences — as 
to  furnish  what  seems  a  conclusive  refutation  of  the 
positions  taken. 

But  the  reason  of  this  is  not  to  be  looked  for  in 
the  system  itself.  It  can  only  be  found  by  means 
of  a  broad  estimate  of  the  total  influence  of  all  the 
social,  political,  and  religious  circumstances  of  our 
people.     Our  men  and  women  grow  up  within  a 


INTKOBUCTION.  19 

home  atmosphere  of  purity,  of  active  thought  and 
intelligent  cultivation ;  all  their  powers  are  keenly 
stimulated  by  national  prosperity,  unlimited  free- 
dom in  all  good  endeavors,  and  a  social  equality 
absolutely  ideal  in  its  perfection ;  and  they  are, 
nevertheless,  living  under  the  wholesome  though 
almost  unfelt  restraints  of  laws  and  governments 
adapted  to  a  free  and  good  people,  with  a  wisdom 
only  less  than  divine.  And  men  and  women  grow- 
ing np  nnder  such  circumstances,  will  commonly 
become  good  and  useful  and  intelligent  members  of 
the  commonwealth,  by  virtue  of  forces  which  might 
even  be  termed  independent  of  a  few  years'  school- 
ing, were  it  not  that  we  know  how  greatly  the 
school  training  aids,  fortifies,  confirms,  and  enhances 
all  the  good  results  of  the  other  infiuences  of  life. 

The  comparatively  high  standard  of  mental  and 
moral  attainment  reached  by  the  graduates  of  our 
educational  institutions,  is  not  a  proof  that  our 
educators  do  not  need  the  same  aids,  and  the  same 
use  of  them,  as  those  of  other  countries.  Because 
they  succeed  astonishingly  well  without  them,  it 
would  be  folly  to  argue  that  they  would  not  succeed 
still  far  better  with  them ;  and  if  this  is  so,  it  is 
unnecessary  to  prove  at  length  that  it  is  a  duty  to 
use  them. 


20  INTEODUCTION. 

The  educators  of  the  United  States — to  resume 
the  course  of  remark  interrupted  by  this  reference 
to  the  apparent  actual  results  of  their  labors — are 
even  peculiarly  destitute  of  the  advantages  deriva- 
ble from  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  history  of 
education.  Deprived,  as  most  of  them  are  and 
must  be,  of  any  thing  like  a  scientific  training  in 
their  profession,  and  thus  left  to  make  the  best  use 
in  their  power  of  their  own  recollections  of  school- 
days, of  brief  and  superficial  observation,  and  of 
short  courses  of  technical  instruction  at  teachers' 
institutes  or  normal  schools,  they  are  liable  to  all 
the  errors  of  inexperience  and  youth.  And  by  just 
as  much  as  they  are  ardently  interested,  by  just  as 
much  as  their  minds  are  full  of  their  occupation, 
and  fruitful  in  suggestions  of  principles  and  methods 
for  prosecuting  it,  by  precisely  so  much  are  they 
more  liable  to  re-invent  modes  and  ideas  which 
have  been  tried  and  given  up  before,  and  thus  to 
spend  precious  months,  or  years  even,  in  pursuing 
and  detecting  errors  which  a  small  knowledge  of 
the  history  of  their  profession  would  have  prevented 
them  from  practicing  for  a  moment,  and  would 
have  taught  them  carefully  to  avoid. 

A  self-taught  modern  geometer,  who,  in  the 
forests  of  the  West,  should  re-discover  the  solution 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

of  the  Pythagorean  problem, — or  a  mathematician; 
who  should,  in  solitary,  ignorant  study,  re-invent 
the  common  system  of  logarithms  or  the  calculus, 
might  possess  a  genius  as  great,  possibly,  as  Py- 
thagoras, or  Napier,  or  Newton.  But  the  vain 
pomposity  of  a  self-taught  genius  is  proverbial. 
The  manner  of  his  announcement  of  his  discovery, 
if  not  the  matter  of  it,  would  insure  him  infinite 
ridicule ;  and  his  wisest  friends  could  furnish  him 
no  consolation  better  than  their  regrets  that,  instead 
of  painfully  laboring  through  those  diflScult  ways, 
he  had  not  exercised  the  privilege  and  the  duty  of 
the  judicious  student,  passed  forward  to  the  existing 
limits  of  knowledge  by  the  friendly  aid  of  his  pred- 
ecessors, and  then  expended  his  powers,  at  once  for 
his  own  real  fame  and  for  the  actual  good  of  his 
race,  by  bravely  plunging  forward  into  the  infinite 
realms  of  the  unknown,  and  adding  a  new  province 
to  the  empires  of  human  thought. 

Instances  of  the  wasteful  method  of  re-discovery 
here  alluded  to,  often  come  under  the  notice  of 
those  whose  reading  has  made  them  acquainted 
with  educational  history.  It  is  unnecessary  to  cite 
in  this  place  more  than  one  or  two  of  these,  for 
illustration's  sake.  Within  a  few  years,  the  use  of 
newspapers  in  schools,  in  the  place  of  reading-books, 


22  INTRODUCTION. 

has  been  recommended  in  various  quarters,  as  a 
modern  invention.  It  is  modern  only  in  the  same 
sense  in  which  newspapers  are  modern;  for  that 
great  educator  and  excellent  man,  John  Amos 
Comenius,  recommended  the  same  use  of  a  gazette 
published  in  Holland,  or  of  some  periodical  of 
similar  character,  about  the  year  1640,  when  news- 
papers were  first  struggling  into  existence.  The 
various  uses  of  apparatus,  of  school  museums  and 
collections  of  natural  history,  of  the  whole  circle  of 
actual  objects  which  are,  at  the  present  day,  more 
and  more  urged,  and  brought  into  use  to  illustrate 
and  enforce  the  oral  instructions  of  the  teacher, 
were  all  elaborately  advocated,  in  principle,  and  to 
a  great  extent  in  detail,  by  the  same  Comenius,  and 
again,  with  vastly  greater  good  fortune  and  success, 
after  the  lapse  of  a  century  and  a  half,  by  Pes- 
talozzi.  Indeed,  it  is  little  or  no  exaggeration  to 
say  that  the  whole  range  of  the  "  modern  improve- 
ments" in  instruction,  which  are  now  in  progress 
among  us,  which  are  doing  so  useful  a  work,  and 
which  are  regarded  by  their  advocates  and  exempli- 
fiers  with  so  much  just  complacency,  will  be  found 
to  have  been  conceived,  and  often  discussed  and 
elaborated  at  great  length,  seventy  years  ago,  by 
the  little  company  of  ardent  and  laborious  teachers 


INTRODUCTION.  23 

who,  with  Pestalozi:ij  did  so  great  a  work  at  Burg- 
dorf  and  Yverdun. 

But  this  presentation  of  the  point  under  dis- 
cussion will  suffice ;  and  its  length  would  even  be 
superfluous,  were  it  not  for  the  singular  exception 
to  the  good  old  rule  of  judging  from  experience, 
which  has  prevailed  in  the  case  of  education. 

It  is  the  design  of  the  present  work  to  furnish 
such  an  account  of  the  various  systems  of  education 
which  have  characterized  races,  or  have  enjoyed  a 
successive  pre-eminence  during  the  historical  ages 
of  the  world,  as  shall  afford  the  student  a  competent 
general  view  of  their  spirit  and  practice.  Its  limits, 
of  course,  preclude  that  fullness  of  detail,  and  length 
of  discussion,  which  would  be  necessary  to  an 
exhaustive  treatment  of  the  subject,  or  to  any 
endeavor  after  such  treatment.  That  task  would 
require  a  work  many  times  more  voluminous  than 
the  present;  for  the  great  problems  of  education 
are  either  identical,  or  inextricably  and  influentially 
interwoven,  with  all  the  great  problems  of  human 
life  and  action.  The  views  which  are  here  given 
are  intended  to  possess  such  a  measure  of  complete- 
ness as  may  insure  their  competent  accuracy,  and 
as  will  enable  the  reader  to  form  a  fair  and  intelli- 
gent judgment  upon  the  leading  practical  questions 


24  INTKODUCTION. 

of  education.  It  traces  tlieir  history  in  practice, 
from  nation  to  nation,  and  from  age  to  age ;  and, 
even  if  some  more  zealous  student  should  fail  to 
find  the  work  as  encyclopedic  as  he  might  desire, 
it  will  afford  him  much  food  for  thought,  and  may 
prove  a  most  valuable  stimulus  to  further  investi- 
gation. As  the  pioneer  American  work  in  its 
department,  it  may  legitimately  both  bespeak  kind 
consideration  and  demand  credit.  And  if  it  shall, 
at  some  future  time,  point  out  the  way  for  a  more 
voluminous  historian  to  erect  a  more  stately  and 
extensive  structure  of  narrative  and  exposition,  this 
alone  will  be  no  small  advantage  and  no  small 
praise. 

HEKKT  BAKNAKD, 

Madison,  Wis.,  Oct.y  1859. 


HISTOEY 


PROGllESS  OF  EDUCATION. 


CHAPTEE  I. 

Definition. — Intellectual  and  physical  training  in  the  antediluvian 
period. — The  ages  after  the  Flood. — Circumstances  favoring  civili- 
zation, and  intellectual  development. — Education  in  India. — Caste. 
— Education  denied  to  the  lower  castes,  and  to  women. 

The  origin  of  the  word  education  (educo^  I 
lead  or  draw  out),  implies  the  idea  of  devel- 
opment, and  hence  we  include  in  the  term 
education,  whatever  tends  to  develop  the 
physical,  the  intellectual,  or  the  moral  powers 
of  man.  In  this  extended  sense,  it  commences 
with  the  birth  of  the  infant,  continues  through 
life,  and,  we  have  reason  to  believe,  progresses 
through    the   future   state  of  being.      It  em- 

2 


26  HISTORY  AND 

braces  the  training  of  the  physical  powers,  the 
instruction  and  improvement  of  the  intellectual 
faculties,  and  the  culture  of  the  moral  affec- 
tions and  emotions.  We  are  accustomed, 
therefore,  to  speak  of  physical,  intellectual, 
and  moral  or  religious  education. 

In  a  more  restricted  sense,  however,  edu- 
cation is  sometimes  used  to  signify  only  the 
training  of  the  intellect,  or  sometimes  of  the 
intellect  and  moral  nature  combined.  In  at- 
tempting to  give  a  brief  historical  sketch  of 
the  progress  of  education,  we  shall  use  the 
term  mainly  in  the  latter  sense ;  for  among  the 
earlier  nations,  the  priests  were,  for  the  most 
part,  the  only  teachers,  and  instruction  and 
worship  were  so  intimately  associated,  that  it 
would  be  impossible  to  sever  them,  while  the 
cultivation  of  the  physical  powers  was  left  to 
nature,  and  to  the  circumstances  and  neces- 
sities of  each  race. 

In  the  early  history  of  mankind,  the  instincts 

,  were,   of  course,   first   developed;    the   body 

must  be  protected  from  atmospheric  changes, 

and  the  natural  clothing  of  beasts  afforded  the 


PEOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  27 

means  of  accomplisliing  this ;  shelter  from  the 
sun  and  rain,  and  protection  from  wild  beasts 
were  the  next  necessity,  and  for  this  purpose, 
booths  made  from  the  branches  of  trees,  or 
huts  from  their  trunks  (both  of  which  seem  to 
have  preceded  tents,  which,  however,  were 
soon  invented,  for  the  convenience  of  the 
shepherd  and  herdsman),  were  constructed; 
the  domestication  of  some  of  the  animal  tribes, 
and  their  protection  from  beasts  of  prey,  came 
next  in  order ;  and  for  this  purpose,  weapons, 
which,  even  prior  to  the  Deluge,  seem  to  have 
been  made  of  iron  or  copper,  were  required ; 
and  thus  the  mere  physical  necessities  of  man 
were  satisfied 

But  even  at  this  early  period,  in  the  seventh 
generation  from  Adam,  the  intellectual  tastes 
began  to  be  cultivated :  for  we  find  that  the 
love  of  music  led,  in  the  case  of  Jubal,  to  the 
invention  of  some  rude  instruments  of  music, 
probably,  as  the  Hebrew  words  imply,  the 
'  lyre  and  the  Pandean  pipe.  Of  the  further 
progress  of  the  antediluvians  in  the  arts  and 
sciences,  the  sacred  record  gives  us  little  infor- 


28  HISTOEY  AND 

mation ;  we  learn,  indeed,  that  they  had  some 
rude  notions  of  architecture,  and  some  knowl- 
edge of  the  use  of  tools,  for  the  construction 
of  a  vessel,  so  gigantic  in  size  as  the  ark, 
would  require  these.  The  language  of  the 
original  would  also  imply  that  some  means 
had  been  devised  for  transmitting  light  to  the 
interior  of  this  vast  structure,  the  word  trans- 
lated windows,  implying  the  ideas  of  brilliancy 
and  transparency;  this  may  have  been,  and 
probably  was,  some  membranous  substance,  or 
possibly  mica,  but  its  use  indicated  a  very 
considerable  advance  from  the  savage  state. 
Nor  can  we  suppose  that  the  antediluvians, 
and  especially  the  descendants  of  Seth,  lacked 
religious  culture. 

The  distinction  made  in  regard  to  the  sacri- 
fices of  Cain  and  Abel,  in  itself  implies  a 
somewhat  extended  course  of  religious  in- 
struction. The  offering  of  the  lamb  indicated 
evidently  the  knowledge  of  its  typical  charac- 
ter, and  involved  the  idea  of  expiatory  sacri- 
fice. The  high  religious  character  of  Enoch 
could  not  have  been  attained  by  special  reve- 


PEOGEESS   OF  EDUCATION.  29 

lation  solely ;  and  the  recollections  of  the  lost 
Paradise,  and  of  intercourse  with  angelic  be- 
ings, might  well  have  been  communicated  to 
him  by  Adam,  who  was  his  cotemporary  dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  his  life.  Nor  do  the 
g^'gantic  crimes  which  led  to  the  destruction 
of  the  antediluvian  world,  imply  necessarily  a 
want  of  intellectual  culture,  for  analogy  shows 
that,  in  all  ages  of  the  world,  high  iutellectual 
attainment,  when  unrestrained  by  moral  mo- 
tives,  has  been  productive  of  the  grossest 
crimes. 

Passing  by,  however,  any  further  considera- 
tion  of  the  mental  condition  of  the  races  prior 
to  the  flood,  we  come  to  post-diluvian  times, 
concerning  which  we  have  more  definite  infor- 
mation.. The  descendants  of  Noah,  settling, 
at  first,  on  the  f(3rtile  plains  lying  between  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris,  in  the  course  of  a  few 
centuries  sent  forth  colonies,  to  India,  to 
China  and  perhaps  Japan,  and  to  Egypt  and 
Ethiopia.  Some  of  thjese  colonies,  in  process 
of  time,  outstripped  the  parent  stock  in  intel- 
lectual   progress.      Recent   discoveries,    how- 


30  HISTORY  AND 

ever,  demonstrate  that,  at  a  very  early  period, 
the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians — who,  if  not 
themselves  the  parent  stock,  were  in  constant 
communication  with  the  descendants  of  those 
who  remained  on  the  plains  of  Shinar — had  a 
written  language,  and  understood  many  of  the 
arts  and  sciences. 

Certain  conditions  seem  to  have  been  neces- 
sary to  any  considerable  intellectual  progress 
among  the  early  nations  of  the  world,  and  by 
a  knowledge  of  the  existence  or  non-existence 
of  these,  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  determine 
whether  any  nation  had,  or  had  not,  emerged 
from  barbarism.  Where  the  soil  was  highly 
fertile,  and  food  abundant,  and  either  from 
conquest,  or  as  a  result  of  famine,  as  in  Egypt, 
the  lands  were  owned  by  the  king  and  his  im- 
mediate associates  or  nobles,  thus  forming  a 
higher  class  in  society,  possessing  the  power 
of  governing  and  controlling  the  great  mass 
of  the  population,  the  governing  class  would 
usually  advance  in  civilization  and  intellectual 
culture.  This  would  certainly  be  the  case,  if, 
from  their  location,  they  were  not  addicted  to 


PEOGEESS  OF  EDUCATION.  31 

war,  and  if,  moreover,  they  had  established  a 
system  of  religion,  which  conferred  special 
privileges  on  the  nobles  and  priests. 

Historians  have  usually  considered  the  in- 
habitants of  India  as  by  far  the  most  highly 
educated  of  all  the  early  nations,  and  probably 
justly,  since  in  their  case  all  these  circum- 
stances coincided  to  give  them  the  opportu- 
nity for  mental  development.  The  fertility  of 
their  soil  was  such  as  to  encourage  the  most 
rapid  increase  of  population.  From  the  ear- 
liest period  the  lands  were  considered  the 
property  of  the  higher  classes ;  desolating 
wars  were,  in  their  early  history,  of  rare 
occurrence,  and  their  religious  system,  which, 
in  itself,  exhibited  the  marks  of  extraordinary 
genius,  divided  the  people  into  castes,  of 
which  the  lowest  or  laboring  caste  (the 
Sudras),  comprising  the  great  mass  of  the  peo- 
ple, were  consigned  to  the  lowest  degradation, 
and  the  most  abject  servitude  to  those  above 
them.  Still,  degraded  as  these  were,  there 
was  a  class  below  them,  the  Pariahs  or  out- 
casts, who  were  cut  off  from  the  sympathies  of 


32  HISTORY  AND 

tlieir  kind,  and  to  look  upon  whom  entailed 
ceremonial  defilement. 

The  three  npper  castes,  comprising  the 
Brahmins,  or  priestly  order,  the  warriors,  and 
the  commercial  or  mercantile  class,  were  al- 
lowed privileges  of  education,  to  which  it  Yfa? 
sacrilege  for  the  Sudras,  or  laboring  class,  to 
aspire — but,  even  •  in  their  case,  the  education 
was  esoteric  and  exoteric  ;  and  while  all  were 
admitted  to  exoteric  privileges,  including  the 
study  of  language,  and  some  rudiments  of 
science,  poetry,  the  popular  religious  doc- 
trines, philosophy,  history,  astronomy,  juris- 
prudence,  and  some  slight  medical  knowledge, 
the  Brahmins  alone  were  admitted  to  the  eso- 
teric studies,  which  included  the  higher  my- 
thology, and  in  some  cases  the  mysteries  of 
their  most  sacred  shrines,  mathematics,  and 
astrology. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed,  however,  that 
these  studies  were  all  taught  in  the  earliest 
periods  of  their  history,  or  that  they  ap- 
proached in  extent  or  accuracy  to  the  sciences 
we  call  by  the  same  names.     Their  cosmo^jony 


PKOGKESS   OF  EDUCATION.  33 

was  absurd  and  childish,  their  history  mostly 
fabulous,  their  astronomy  confined  to  some 
slight  knowledge  of  the  movements  of  the 
heavenly  bodies.  But  even  this  education, 
meager  as  it  was,  was  withheld,  most  carefully, 
from  the  great  mass  of  the  people :  if  the 
Sudra,  longing  for  instruction,  dared  to  listen 
to  the  reading  of  the  sacred  books,  in  which 
all  the  science  of  the  time  was  concentrated, 
burning  oil  was  to  be  poured  into  his  ears ;  if 
he  attempted  to  commit  the  words  to  memory, 
he  was  to  be  put  to  death,  and  the  Brahmin 
who  should  attempt  to  teach  him  was  threat- 
ened with  perdition.  These  Sudras  are  esti- 
mated by  Ward  as  comprising  three-fourths 
of  the  Hindoo  people. 

Strict  as  these  laws  were  in  prohibiting  the 
instruction  of  the  lowest  caste,  they  were  not 
less  strict  in  defining  the  position  of  woman — 
a  position,  if  possible,  more  degrading  than 
that  of  the  Sudra.  It  was  a  terrible  disgrace 
for  a  woman  to  have  learned  to  read,  and  the 
avowal  of  that  knowledge  was  sufficient  to 
class  her  with  the  most  abandoned  of  her  sex. 

2« 


34  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION. 

Her  duties  and  attainments  were  only  such  as 
would  conduce  to  the  mere  physical  comfort 
of  her  lord  and  master;  and  when  he  died, 
cruelly  as  he  might  have  treated  her,  custom 
required  that  she  should  sacrifice  her  life  for 
him,  on  the  fu:neral  pile,  especially  if  he  were 
a  Brahmin. 


CHAPTEE   II. 

Education  in  Egypt  and  Ethiopia. — Caste. — Instruction  exoteric  and 
esoteric. — Females  of  the  higher  castes  educated. — Education  con- 
fined to  the  higher  castes. — The  masses  degraded  and  oppressed. 
— Egypt  the  seat  of  the  highest  learning  at  a  later  period. — Edu- 
cation among  the  Chinese. — Schools. — System  of  instruction. — Edu- 
cation a  necessary  qualification  for  high  official  station. — Literary 
honors  and  degrees. — Much  of  this  education  only  intended  to  de- 
velop the  memory. — Chinese  keys,  for  examinations. 

Let  us  turn  next  to  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  or, 
as  it  is  called  in  modern  times,  Abyssinia. 
We  find  here  the  system  of  education  and  of 
religion  bearing  so  strong  a  resemblance  (the 
result  probably  of  their  common  origin,  and 
similar  circumstances)  to  that  of  India,  that 
many  writers  have  supposed  Egypt  to  have 
been  settled  by  an  Indian  colony.  Aside, 
however,  from  the  improbability  of  a  colony 
having  come  from  a  region  so  remote,  there 
were  differences  in  their  religious  and  educa- 
tional systems,  sufficiently  marked  to  preclude 
such  a  theory. 

The  division  of  caste   existed  among   the 


S6  HISTORY  AND 

Egyptians,  and  there  were  three  of  the  privi- 
leged classes — priests,  warriors,  and  profes- 
sional men,  including  judges,  architects,  wri- 
ters, and  perhaps  also  physicians.  The  priests 
held  the  real  power  of  the  nation  in  their 
hands,  though  the  monarch  was  generally 
chosen  from  the  warrior  class.  Upon  these 
three  classes  was  bestowed  most  of  the  educa- 
tion of  the  country,  an  education  which,  like 
that  of  India,  was  exoteric  and  esoteric;  the 
former  including  a  knowledge  of  the  demotic 
or  common  mode  of  writing  (while  the  hiero- 
glyphic, or  sacred,  was  confined  to  the  priestly 
class  alone),  geometry,  and  mensuration  of 
land — both  sciences  rendered  necessary  by  the 
frequent  changes  induced  by  the  overflowing 
of  the  Nile ;  arithmetic,  astronomy,  chemistry, 
in  which  they  were  more  proficient  than  any 
other  of  the  nations  of  antiquity ;  architecture, 
sculpture,  painting,  music,  and,  where  they' 
designed  practicing  it,  a  system  of  medicine. 
The  abacics^  a  kind  of  numeral  frame,  in  which 
stones  were  used  for  arithmetical  processes, 
was  in  common  use. 


PEOGRESS   OF  EBUCAriON.  37 

The  children  of  the  priests  were  also  in- 
structed in  the  sacred  mysteries  and  in  the 
higher  mathematics,  and  made  familiar  with 
the  hieroglyphic  language,  and  the  sciences 
and  mysteries  concealed  in  its  literature.  The 
female  children  of  the  higher  classes,  and  par 
ticularly  of  the  priests,  were  allowed  to  acquire 
an  education,  and  many  of  them  availed  them 
selves  of  the  opportunity.  The  children  oJ 
the  royal  family  were  carefully  instructed,  and 
were  only  allowed  to  have  as  companions  the 
most  intelligent  of  the  youth  of  the  priestly 
class. 

The  priests,  as  the  instructors  of  the  nation, 
were  required  to  lead  an  abstemious  and  vir- 
tuous life,  were  allowed  to  have  but  one  wife, 
and  were  forbidden  all  those  articles  of  food 
which  would  make  them  gross  or  indolent. 
The  same  regimen  was  observed  with  their 
pupils.  The  plainest  fare,  and  the  hardest  of 
beds,  were  the  portion  of  the  youth  who  were 
acquiring  an  education.  The  lands  of  the 
country  were  all  held  by  the  privileged  castes. 

The  lower  orders,  comprising  the  artificers,  * 


38  HISTORY  AND 

the  agriculturists,  and  the  herdsmen,  except 
the  swineherds  (who  constituted  a  Pariah 
class,  and  were  forbidden  education,  or  the 
privilege  of  visiting  the  temples),  were  allowed 
but  little  education,  and  that  little  was  usually 
communicated  by  their  parents,  or  near  rela- 
tives. They  were  not  cut  off,  like  the  Sudras 
in  India,  from  all  instruction,  but  were  gener- 
ally taught  (both  males  and  females)  reading 
the  demotic  character  and  arithmetic,  as  neces- 
sary for  the  purposes  of  trade,  in  which  the 
women  engaged  oftener  than  the  men;  they 
were  also  instructed  in  the  art,  trade,  or  busi- 
ness which  their  parents  had  followed,  and 
which  they  were  expected  to  practice.  If  agri- 
culturists, they  were  obliged  to  pay  one-fourth 
of  the  produce  of  their  land  to  the  proprietors 
of  the  soil,  who  were  usually  either  members 
of  the  reigning  family  or  of  the  priestly  caste. 
During  the  reign  of  the  Shepherd  Kings  and 
the  Pyramid  builders,  the  mass  of  the  people 
were  in  the  most  abject  condition,  many  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  them  being  compelled 
to   undergo    the    severest   hardships,   in   the 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  39 

erection  of  the  pyramids ;    but  subsequently 
their  condition  was  much  ameliorated. 

At  a  later  period  in  the  history  of  Egypt, 
when  the  Greek  civilization,  which  originated 
in  Egypt,  but  had  greatly  improved  and  ad- 
vanced under  the  wise  measures  of  the  Greek 
philosophers  and  law-givers,  was  reintroduced 
there,  by  Alexander  the  Great  and  his  succes 
sors,  Alexandria  and  the  other  cities  of  the 
Delta  became  as  renowned  for  their  schools  of 
philosophy  and  science,  as  Thebes,  Memphis, 
and  Heliopolis  had  been,  in  earlier  times,  for 
the  schools  of  the  priests.  The  dynasty  of  the 
Ptolemies  was  renowned  for  its  devotion  to 
science  and  literature,  and  the  vast  libraries  of 
the  Bruchion  and  the  Serapeum  at  Alexandria, 
were  the  most  remarkable  monuments  of  the 
learning  of  the  period. 

The  Chinese  and  Japanese  deserve  a  passing 
notice  for  their  early  systems  of  education. 
The  exact  period  at  which  these  nations 
emerged  from  barbarism  can  not  be  ascer- 
tained, for  the  traditions  of  a  remote  antiquity 
are  always  mingled  with  fable ;   but  that  it 


40  HISTORY  AND 

could  hardly  have  been  much  later  than  the 
intellectual  development  of  the  Hindoo  and 
Egyptian  nations  seems  evident.  The  most 
renowned  sage  of  the  Chinese,  Con-fut-see, 
who  flourished  about  550  b.  c,  expressly  dis- 
claims having  originated  any  of  the  views  he 
promulgated  ;  he  had  only,  he  said,  attempted 
to  revive  thfi  doctrines  of  the  ancient  sages  of 
the  nation,  which  in  the  long  lapse  of  ages 
had  fallen  into  desuetude.  The  regulations  in 
regard  to  education,  which  he  thus  resusci- 
tated, and  which  were  practiced  in  their  spirit 
for  many  years,  as  they  now  are  in  form,  were 
in  many  respects  admirable,  and  greatly  in 
advance  of  those  of  the  other  nations  at  "that 
early  period. 

The  course  of  instruction,  intended  for  boys 
of  all  classes,  was  commenced  in  the  family  at 
an  early  age ;  they  were  taught  to  reverence 
their  parents  and  ancestors,  to  repeat  certain 
precepts  of  morality,  and  to  commit  some 
extracts  from  the  Chi-King  and  other  ancient 
books  to  memory;  they  were  also  taught  to 
count,  up  to  10,000,  and  instructed  in  the  ele- 


PEOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  41 

ments  of  gmmmar.  At  the  age  of  five  or  six 
years,  they  were  sent  to  school.  Here  they 
were  required  to  make,  on  entering,  their 
obeisance,  first  to  the  holy  Coji-fut-see,  or  be- 
fore his  time  to  some  earlier  sage,  and  next,  to 
their  teacher.  This  done,  the  lessons  of  the 
day  were  to  be  studied.  These  consisted  to  a 
great  extent  of  memoritic  exercises,  chirogra- 
phy,  chanting  odes  from  the  Chi-King  or  other 
text-books,  narration  and  explanation  of  his- 
torical events,  and  some  further  instruction  in 
arithmetic.  Moral  instruction  was  carefully 
mingled  with  intellectual,  and  a  strict,  though 
not  cruel,  discipline  maintained. 

On  returning  home,  they  were  required  to 
salute,  first,  the  domestic  spirits,  then  their 
ancestors,  and  afterward  their  parents  and 
relatives,  and  any  strangers  who  might  be 
present.  The  course  of  instruction,  where  the 
attendance  was  constant,  and  the  child  studi- 
ous, might  be  completed  in  three  years,  but  it 
was  usually  prolonged  beyond  this.  These 
schools  seem  not  to  have  been  supported  by 
the    general    government,    but   by   the   local 


42  HISTORY  AND 

authorities.  Female  children  were  not  ad- 
mitted to  them,  but  they  were  very  generally 
taught  to  read,  write,  and  sing.  A  higher 
course  of  instruction  was  provided  by  the 
government  for  the  children  of  the  nobles 
and  wealthier  classes,  as  well  as  for  those  of 
marked  promise  in  the  ordinary  schools. 

In  no  nation  of  ancient  or  modern  times, 
with  possibly  the  exception  of  Prussia,  has 
education  been  the  means  of  official  promotion 
as  much  as  among  the  Chinese.  In  each  con- 
siderable city,  there  was  a  seminary  of  high 
grade,  intended  for  the  instruction  of  young 
men  who  wished  to  qualify  themselves  for 
official  stations.  The  candidates  for  admission 
into  these  schools,  were  obliged  to  pass  an 
examination  conducted  by  the  governor  of  the 
city,  and  after  attendance  upon  the  seminary 
they  were  again  examined  by  the  governor  of 
a  city  of  the  first  magnitude ;  when,  if  able  to 
pass,  they  were  permitted  to  enter  the  impe- 
rial college  at  Pekin,  and  remained  for  three 
years,  when  they  could,  by  passing  a  further 
examination,  receive  an  appointment  to  some 


PROGRESS   OF  EDUCATION.  43 

inferior  office.  But  a  very  small  proportion 
of  those  who  offered  themselves  were  able  to 
pass  the  very  strict  examination. 

A  mandarin  of  high  rank  was  every  year 
deputed  to  hold  examinations,  in  the  larger 
cities,  of  those  who  aspired  to  the  first  degree 
in  the  arts,  called  by  the  Chinese  Liroutsay. 
From  each  company  of  four  hundred  candi- 
dates, fifteen  were  selected  who  passed  the 
best  examination,  after  ten  trials,  on  whom  the 
degree  was  conferred.  This  degree  was  ac- 
companied with  some  civil  privileges,  one  of 
the  most  considerable  of  which  was,  exemption 
from  chastisement  with  the  bamboo.  Those 
who  had  attained  to  this  degree,  were  allowed 
to  compete  at  the  triennial  examination,  at 
Pekin,  for  the  higher  degree,  and  if  they 
succeeded  in  passing  the  severe  and  repeated 
examinations,  received  it,  and  the  following 
year  passed,  if  they  chose,  a  third  examination, 
at  the  capital,  on  which,  if  successful,  they 
received  the  degree  of  Tsin-tse,  which  answers 
to  our  Doctor  of  Laws.  The  recipient  of  this 
title  was  eligible  to  the  most  important  offices, 


44  HISTOEY  OF  EDUCATION. 

and  could  enjoy,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  Em- 
peror, the  title  of  Han-Lin,  the  highest  of  all 
literary  titles. 

The  investigations  of  recent  travelers  and 
missionaries,  however,  prove,  that  a  very  largo 
portion  of  the  studies  on  which  the  Chinese 
lay  so  much  stress,  consisted  of  mere  repeti- 
tions of  long  lists  of  names,  or  of  works,  whose 
meaning  was  seldom  comprehended  by  the 
student.  The  mathematical  sciences,  beyond 
the  simple  rules  of  arithmetic,  receive'd  but 
little  attention,  and  no  language  except  Chi- 
nese was  studied,  nor  had  they  made  much 
progress  in  the  physical  sciences.  Keys,  or 
answers  to  the  questions  usually  propounded, 
prepared  on  small  slips  of  paper,  were  also 
frequently  procured  by  the  candidates.  A 
specimen  of  these  is  now  in  the  library  of 
Yale  College. 


CHAPTEE    III. 

The  Japanese. — Their  scientific  discoveries. — Education  of  prostitutes. 
— Ancient  Babylonians  and  Assyrians. — Evidence  of  their  educa- 
tional condition  afforded  by  recent  discoveries. — Ancient  Persians. 
— Parsees  or  Fire  Worshipers. — Magi. — Their  position. — Xeno- 
phon's  account  of  education  in  the  time  of  Cyrus. — The  four  classes. 
— This  education  confined  to  those  possessing  some  property. — Fe- 
male degradation. — Little  accomplished  for  education  by  Zartusht  or 
Zoroaster. 

The  Japanese  seem  to  have  had  a  system  of 
education  superior  to  the  Chinese,  pursuing  a 
wider  and  more  liberal  course  of  scientific 
studies,  and  acquiring  the  languages  of  some 
other  nations.  Their  academies  of  science,  as 
well  as  their  professional  schools,  were  quite 
respectable.  From  Commodore  Perry's  narra- 
tive, it  appears  that  they  understand  the  prep- 
aration of  a  kind  of  stereotype  plates,  from 
which  their  books  are  printed  ;  that  they 
adopted,  centuries  ago,  a  decimal  system  of 
weights  and  measures,  and  that  in  many  of  the 
arts  and  sciences,  requiring  no  inconsiderable 
chemical  skill,  they  are  proficient. 


46  HISTOEY  AND 

Females  receive  some  education,  and  those 
Avho  are  destined  to  an  abandoned  life,  of 
whom  there  are  vast  numbers,  are  usually  well 
taught  in  the  literature  and  poetry  of  the 
country,  that  they  may  thus  be  rendered  more 
attractive. 

Of  the  early  inhabitants  of  the  plain  of 
Shinar  and  the  land  lying  between  the  Eu- 
phrates and  Tigris,  the  Mesopotamia  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  the  vast  empires  of  Babylon 
and  Assyria,  our  information  is  scanty,  derived 
mainly  from  the  Scripture  record  and  the 
recent  explorations  of  Layard,  Rawlinson,  Tay- 
lor, Loftus,  and  others.  That  they  had  at- 
tained, at  a  period  seven  or  eight  centuries 
after  the  flood,  to  a  high  degree  of  civilization, 
is  evident  from  the  remains  which  explorers 
have  found  there.  Their  monuments,  their 
rooms,  stairways,  and  tablets,  all  covered  with 
inscriptions,  in  the  cuneiform  character,  mostly 
historical ;  their  bank  or  treasury  notes,  found 
by  Mr.  Loftus,  in  the  form  of  clay  tablets; 
their  complex  mode  of  numeration,  reckoning 
by  tens  and  by  sixties ;  their  skill  in  sculpture, 


TEOGKESS  OF  EDUCATION.  47 

in  architecture,  and  in  horticulture;  the  ex- 
istence of  a  class  of  wise  men  or  magi^  selected 
for  their  profound  attainments  in  chemistry, 
astronomy,  astrology,  and  other  mystic  arts, 
all  indicate  a  nation  which  had  made  very 
considerable  advances  in  education. 

Yet  we  find,  on  the  other  hand,  a  religion 
of  the  most  debasing  and  brutal  character, 
pandering  to  the  indulgence  of  every  lust,  and 
inciting  to  the  most  bloody  and  cruel  sacri- 
fices; child-murder  very  generally  practiced, 
human  sacrifices  offered  to  idols,  and  even 
parents  casting  their  own  children  into  the 
red-hot  arms  of  the  brazen  statue  of  the  Fire- 
God.  From  these  and  other  circumstances, 
we  can  but  derive  the  conclusion  that  educa- 
tion was  confined  to  the  few,  and  those  of  the 
highest  rank,  while  the  masses  were  unen- 
lightened. 

The  data  for  determining  the  educational 
condition  of  the  ancient  Persians,  are  much 
more  full  and  satisfactory.  The  Zend-Avesta, 
or  sacred  book  of  the  Parsees,  or  Fire  Wor- 
shipers, the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Per- 


48  HISTOEY  AND 

sians,  which  is  ascribed,  though  with  somewhat 
doubtful  probability,  to  Zartusht^  the  Zoroaster 
of  the  Greeks,  contains  the  material  for  form- 
ing a  tolerably  accurate  idea  of  the  early 
education  of  that  nation.  The  descendants  of 
Elam,  the  son  of  Shem,  who  were  the  earliest 
inhabitants  of  Persia,  seem  to  have  been  a 
simple  pastoral  people,  who  had  retained,  in 
greater  purity  than  most  of  the  adjacent 
nations,  the  religious  principles  handed  down 
to  them  by  their  ancestor,  but  possessing  little 
intellectual  culture. 

In  the  lapse  of  ages,  at  a  period  cotempo- 
rary  with  that  of  the  patriarch  Job,  the  Tza- 
beans,  acknowledged  idolaters  and  polytheists, 
attained  the  ascendency  over  the  simple  de- 
scendants of  Elam,  who  had  hitherto  reared  no 
idols,  but  regarded  with  reverence  the  sun,  as 
the  emblem  of  Divinity,  the  air,  the  earth,  and 
the  water  as  the  means  by  which  the  power  of 
the  Divinity  was  displayed ;  in  their  train 
followed  the  Magi,  a  body  of  wise  men  who 
probably  originated  in  Chaldea,  and  who  for 
ages  ruled  the  Persians,  by  the  force  of  their 


PKOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  49 

intellect  alone.  They  abolished  the  worship 
of  idols,  but  retained  the  use  of  fire  as  the 
only  symbol  of  deity.  With  intellects  quick- 
ened by  their  active  exercise,  they  became 
the  inventors,  the  discoverers,  the  men  of  sci- 
ence of  the  nation,  in  which  they  were  never- 
theless foreigners  and  strangers.  Debarred, 
by  the  jealousy  of  the  people,  from  the  throne 
or  from  high  office,  as  well  as  from  the  marts 
of  trade,  they  yet  managed  to  be  for  ages  the 
governing  power  of  the  country. 

The  king,  though  professedly  an  autocrat, 
was  yet  completely  under  their  sway.  Them- 
selves skilled  in  the  arts  and  sciences  of  their 
day,  beyond  any  other  of  the  people  of  the 
East,  they  carefully  retained  in  their  own 
order,  the  secrets  by  which  they  had  gained 
and  maintained  their  power,  yet  directed  the 
education  of  the  masses,  so  as  to  qualify  them 
for  deeds  of  warlike  prowess,  and  for  such 
civil  duties  and  artisan  pursuits  as  they  chose 
to  commit  to  them.. 

In  physical  training,  they  seem  to  have 
excelled  all  the  other  oriental  nations ;  allow- 


50  HISTORY  AND 

ing  even  to  the  future  warriors  but  a  meagre 
fare,  and  requiring  of  them  a  gymnastic  disci- 
pline, which  made  them,  at  that  period,  very 
formidable ;  they  required  of  all  classes  the 
strictest  adherence  to  truth,  and  reckoned 
chastity  and  purity  of  soul  among  the  highest 
virtues.  The  intellectual  culture  they  allowed 
was  but  trifling,  except  to  those  who  were  to 
be  physicians ;  these  were  taught  that  portion 
of  the  sciences  which  pertained  to  their  pro- 
fession, and  were  exhorted  to  practice  the 
utmost  care  and  caution  in  the  art  of  healing. 

At  the  time  of  Cyrus,  and  after  his  conquest 
\oi  Babylon,  the  religion  and  the  luxurious 
/habits  of  the  Babylonians  were  introduced, 
j  greatly  to  the  injury  and  degradation  of  the 
I  Persians ;  but  the  picture  which  Xenophon 
draws  of  the  Persian  system  of  education, 
during  the  youth  of  Cyrus,  is  interesting. 

The   whole   population    (except,    it  would 
seem,  the   magi   themselves   and   the   poorer 
,  classes),   were   divided   into   four  orders,   ac- 
cording to  their  age :    1st,  the  boys  under  17  ; 
2d,  the  Ephebi,  or  youths  from  17  to  27  years 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  51 

of  age;  3d,  the  mature  men  from  27  to  52; 
4th,  the  old  men  above  52  years  of  age.  To 
each  of  these  their  proper  apartments  were 
assigned  in  the  eXevdepa  ayopa  or  public  place 
of  each  town,  far  removed  from  the  shops  and 
markets.  The  boys,  who  commenced  their 
training  at  the  age  of  six  years,  lodged  at 
home,  and  brought  thence  their  meagre  fare 
of  bread  and  water-cresses,  and  a  cup  to  draw 
water  from  the  river,  for  their  drink ;  they 
were  taught  equitation,  the  use  of  the  bow 
and  the  javelin,  and  the  importance  of  a 
truthful,  noble,  and  courageous  character ; 
they  were  also  taught  the  administration  of 
justice,  by  the  trial  of  any  one  of  their  own 
number  who  was  in  fault,  by  his  peers;  in- 
gratitude, they  were  instructed,  was  the  most 
heinous  of  crimes,  and  merited  the  severest  of 
punishments.  The  young  men  (e(pTjl3oc)  lodged 
in  the  public  apartments,  were  trained  to 
military  exercises,  and  were  permitted,  in 
I  turn,  to  accompany  the  king  and  nobles  in 
hunting,  but  were  restricted  to  half  their  usual 
fare,  meagre  as  it  was,  while  absent  on  their 


52  HISTOEY  AND 

hunting  expeditions ;  to  which,  however,  they 
were  permitted  to  add  a  portion  of  any  game 
they  might  kill.  They  were  also  exercised  in 
various  public  games.  In  case  of  war  they 
formed  a  portion  of  the  military  force;  the 
men  of  mature  age  constituted  the  reliable 
army  of  the  country,  and  though  engaged 
only  a  portion  of  the  time  in  actual  service, 
must,  at  all  times,  be  ready  to  be  called  out. 
They  did  not,  like  the  young  men,  carry  the 
bow  and  javelin,  but  were  clad  in  heavy 
armor,  and  bore  a  sword.  The  magistrates 
were  selected  from  this  class.  The  old  men 
did  not  render  military  service,  except  in  case 
of  the  invasion  of  their  country,  but  remained 
at  home  and  engaged  in  civil  matters,  forming 
a  kind  of  jury  for  the  administration  of  justice. 
The  privilege  of  this  public  instruction  and 
training  was  only  allowed  to  the  sons  of  those 
who  were  able,  from  their  wealth,  to  dispense 
with  the  services  of  their  children.  For  the 
sons  of  the  poor  there  was  no  education,  ex- 
cept such  as  they  might  obtain  at  home. 
Female  education  was  utterly  neglected;  the 


PEOGKESS  OF  EDUCATION.  53 

wife  was  the  slave  of  her  husband,  and  every 
morning  must  kneel  at  his  feet,  and  ask,  nine 
times,  the  question,  '^What  do  you  wish  that 
I  should  do  ?"  and  having  received  his  reply, 
bowing  humbly,  she  must  withdraw  and  obey 
his  commands. 

The  advent  of  Zartusht,  or  Zoroaster,  the 
great  Persian  reformer,  in  the  reign  of  Darius 
Hystaspes,  was  marked  by  a  temporary  reform 
of  their  religious  system,  which,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Babylonian  manners,  had  sunk  into 
licentiousness ;  but  he  appears,  unlike  Con-fut- 
see  and  Meng-tsee,  the  Chinese  philosophers, 
to  have  attempted  nothing  in  the  way  of 
education. 


PEOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  55 


CHAPTEE    IV. 

The  Hebrews.— Beauty  of  their  literature.— Evidence  it  affords  of 
extensive  acquaintance  with  natural  science. — Instruction  amongf 
the  higher  classes. — Learning  of  Solomon  and  some  of  his  associates. 
— Education  mostly  confined  to  the  family. — No  schools,  properly 
80  called,  among  them,  till  near  the  Christian  era. — Schools  of  the 
Eabbins. 

The  Hebrews  or  Israelites  next  deserve  our 
attention.  Not  naturally  superior  in  intellec- 
tual ability  to  the  nations  around  them,  and 
for  some  centuries,  owing  to  their  pastoral  and 
agricultural  pursuits,  possessing  fewer  oppor- 
tunities of  culture  than  the  Egyptians  and 
Babylonians,  some  of  the  race,  nevertheless, 
attained  to  a  remarkable  degree  of  literary 
and  scientific  eminence.  No  literature  of 
ancient  times  compares,  for  beauty  or  gran- 
deur, with  the  Psalms,  the  book  of  Job,  and 
portions  of  the  prophetic  books. 

Solomon,  though  educated  entirely  in  his 
own  kingdom,  was  regarded  by  neighboring, 
and   even   remote   nations,    as   a  prodigy   of 


56  HISTORY  AND 

learning.  Several  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  and  particularly  Job,  Psalms,  and 
Proverbs,  contain  allusions  v/hich  indicate  a 
knowledge  of  science  and  the  useful  arts, 
greatly  in  advance  of  that  possessed  by  adja- 
cent nations. 

The  priestly  class,  as  such,  does  not  how- 
ever seem  to  have  possessed  either  the  educa- 
tion or  the  influence  which  they  had  attained 
in  Egypt  or  India.  The  wealthier  classes 
cultivated  science,  and  their  children  were 
taught  by  hired  instructors ;  thus  we  find  that 
the  prophet  Nathan,  and  Jehiel  ben  Hachmoni, 
were  the  governors  or  instructors  of  the  sons 
of  David.  At  the  period  of  Solomon's  acces- 
sion to  the  throne,  learning  flourished  more 
than  at  any  previous,  and  perhaps  more  than 
at  any  subsequent  period  of  the  Israelitish 
history.  In  1  Kings,  iv.  31,  we  find  the 
names  of  several  eminent  scholars  of  that  time, 
viz. :  ''  Ethaii  the  Ezrahite,  and  Heman  (possi- 
.,  bly  the  eminent  singer,  so  often  referred  to 
in  the  Psalms),  Chalcol  and  Darda,  the  sons  of 
Mahol." 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  57 

Education  among  the  Hebrews  was  not 
national,  in  the  same  sense  as  that  of  the 
Persians,  or  the  Spartans ;  but  rather  con- 
ducted in  the  family,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  the  wealthier  classes,  seems  to  have  been 
rather  moral  and  sesthetic,  than  intellectual. 
Reading  was  not  generally  taught,  at  least  in 
the  earlier  ages  of  their  history ;  but  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  moral,  and,  to  some  extent,  those 
of  the  ceremonial  law,  were  communicated 
with  great  care  and  particularity  from  father 
to  son.  Obedience  to  parents  was  considered 
indispensable,  while  continued  disobedience 
was  punished  by  the  death-penalty,  as  was 
also  dissolute  conduct  on  the  part  of  the 
young.  The  use  of  the  rod,  by  parents,  to 
control  and  subdue  refractory  children,  was 
not  only  allowed,  but  recommended ;  the  his- 
tory of  the  nation,  with  its  miracles,  and  its 
fearful  warnings,  was  very  generally  taught; 
and  instrumental  music,  chanting,  and  improv- 
isation, as  well  as  dancing,  which  constituted 
a  feature  of  their  usual  worship,  formed  a  part 
of  the  course  of  instruction,  with  both  sexes. 

3» 


58  HISTORY  AND 

Architecture,  sculpture,  embroidery,  and  en- 
graving, or  chasing  of  the  precious  metals  and 
gems,  were  also  carried  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection. 

The  condition  of  woman,  though  low  in  the 
social  scale,  was  still  much  higher  than  that 
of  the  surrounding  nations ;  and  in  the  later 
periods  of  their  history,  polygamy  was  entirely 
abandoned. 

Unless  we  regard  what  are  called  by  Jewish 
writers  the  schools  of  the  prophets  (for  the 
early  Hebrew  has  no  term  answering  to  our 
word  school)^  as  places  of  instruction,  there 
was  nothing  like  a  public  place  of  instruction 
in  Palestine.  That  sacred  chanting  was  prac- 
ticed in  their  assemblies,  and  accompanied 
with  the  use  of  musical  instruments,  we  know; 
that,  as  some  writers  conjecture,  reading, 
writing,  poetry,  and  the  elements  of  philoso- 
phy and  medicine  were  taught  there,  is  less 
certain. 

Near  the  commencement  of  the  Christian 
era,  and  for  a  period  of  four  or  five  hundred 
years  after^  there  were  schools,  iu  Pajestiue 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  59 

and  elsewhere,  taught  by  the  Rabbins,  in 
which  the  instruction  was  confined  to  the 
iaws  of  Moses,  and  the  Rabbinical  commenta- 
ries thereon,  the  Mischna,  the  Thora,  and  the 
Gemara — the  larger  portion  of  which  the  pu- 
pils were  required  to  commit  to  memory. 
These  commentaries  were,  for  the  most  part, 
occupied  with  the  most  absurd  and  silly  spec- 
ulations concerning  the  sacred  text,  and  their 
study  was  an  injury  rather  than  a  benefit  to 
the  pupils. 

We  find  nowhere  any  evidence  that  mathe- 
matics, beyond  the  mere  rudiments  of  arith- 
metic, were  taught  among  the  Hebrews ;  and 
in  their  knowledge  of  astronomy  they  were 
far  behind  the  Egyptians,  the  Babylonians, 
and  the  Greeks.  Their  men  of  learning  must 
have  cultivated  some  departments  of  physical 
science,  for  we  are  told  of  Solomon,  1  Kings, 
iv.  33,  that  '^he  spake  of  trees,  from  the  cedar- 
tree  that  is  in  Lebanon,  even  unto  the  hyssop 
that  springeth  out  of  the  wall ;  he  spake  also 
of  beasts,  and  of  fowl,  and  of  creeping  things, 
and  of  fishes."     We  find  evidence  also  in  the 


60  mSTOKY  OF  EDUCATION. 

Psalms,  the  Proverbs,  and  the  book  of  Job,  of 
critical  research  in  the  mineral  as  well  as  the 
vegetable  and  animal  world. 


CHAPTER  V. 

The  Greeks. — ^Influence  of  their  systems  of  education  on  oi  ,.^.  ««iions. 
*— The  Homeric  period.— Ulysses,  Achilles,  and  Patrocliis. — The 
period  of  the  Lawgivers. — Lycurgus. — Brief  biographical  sketch. 
— The  Spartan  system. — More  limited  in  its  application  than  gener- 
ally supposed. — Solon. — Peculiarities  of  his  system. — Instruction 
confined  to  the  higher  classes,  and  forbidden  to  slaves  and  women, 
except  courtesans. — Pytiiaooras. — His  extensive  travels.^ — The  phi* 
losophic  character  of  his  instructions. — His  course  exoteric  and 
esoteric. — General  view  of  his  system. — Its  exemplification  in  some 
of  his  followers. 

We  come  next  to  speak  of  the  educational 
systems  of  a  people  whose  influence  is  felt  on 
the  intellects  of  all  civilized  nations,  even  to 
the  present  day.  Greece  has  perhaps  exerted 
more  sway,  by  her  literature,  over  the  minds 
of  men  in  the  two  thousand  years  since  her 
decadence,  than  in  the  ages  when,  in  intel- 
lectual culture  and  in  physical  bravery,  she 
stood  first  among  the  nations. 

Her  educational  condition  may  perhaps  be 
better  understood,  by  a  brief  review  of  it  at 
four  periods.  The  Homeric  period^  or,  as  it  is 
usually  called,  the  Tieroic  age^  has  so  much  of 


62  HISTORY  AND 

fable  mixed  with  fact  in  its  traditions,  that  it 
is  only  by  incidental  allusions  in  Homer  and 
Hesiod,  that  we  can  discover  what  was  the 
real  intellectual  condition  of  the  people. 
There  would  seem  to  have  been  little  answer- 
ing to  our  notion  of  a  school,  existing  during 
this  period,  unless  the  gatherings  for  chanting 
the  Orphic  hymns  and  other  ascriptions  of 
praise  to  the  gods  can  be  so  regarded. 

The  art  of  healing  was  taught  by  the 
Asclepiades,  and  there  were  also  schools  of 
medicine  (so  called)  at  Crotona,  a  Greek 
colony  in  Italy,  at  Cneidus  in  Crete,  and  at 
Rhodes  ;  but  the  medical  knowledge  was 
scanty,  and  mostly  confined  to  hygienic  pre- 
cepts. The  education  must  have  been  mostly 
domestic,  and  probably  did  not  include  a 
knowledge  of  reading,  as  it  is  doubtful  if 
letters  were  then  known.  Severe  physical 
training,  the  government  of  the  passions, 
knowledge  of  the  world  and  of  men,  and  rev- 
erence for  the  gods,  seem  to  have  been  the 
principal  subjects  of  instruction. 

Natural   science  had  made   some  progress 


PKOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  63^ 

among  a  people  so  inquiring  as  the  Greeks, 
and  they  had  learned  to  recognize  some  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  which  glittered  in  their  azure 
skies.  Ulysses,  who  seems  to  have  been 
Homer's  ideal  of  a  wise  man,  has  drawn  his 
knowledge  from  observation  and  experience. 

Achilles  and  Patroclus  had  a  special  in- 
structor or  tutor ;  Hector's  education,  however 
attained,  was  such  as  to  make  him  a  model  of 
noble  manly  valor,  and  of  domestic  virtue. 
The  education  of  women  was  not  wholly  neg- 
lected. They  were  skilled  in  household  duties, 
in  embroidery;  and  some  of  them,  like  Penel- 
ope, Arete,  and  Nausikaa,  were  so  intelligent 
as  to  fascinate,  by  their  conversation,  the 
heroes  of  their  time. 

Leaving  this  mythic  age,  we  come  to  a 
period  when  history,  though  still  occasionally 
beclouded  by  fable,  gives  us  more  light.'  The 
period  of  Lycurgus,  of  Solon,  and  of  Pythago- 
ras, embracing  more  than  250  years  of  Grecian 
history,  viz. ;  from  776  b.  c,  to  520  b.  c,  may 
be  regarded  as  the  second  stage  of  education 
in  Greece. 


64  HISTOIiY  AND 

The  exact  date  of  the  birth  of  Lycurgus,  as 
well  as  many  facts  in  his  history,  are  matters 
of  uncertainty.  The  best  accredited  narratives 
make  him  a  descendant  of  the  Heraclidse,  the 
royal  family  of  Sparta.  He  saved  the  king- 
dom for  his  infant  nephew  Charilaus,  against 
the  wiles  of  the  queen-regent ;  and  having,  in 
consequence,  incurred  her  enmity,  he  absented 
himself  for  many  years,  studying  in  foreign 
lands  the  laws  and  systems  of  government  of 
the  most  civilized  nations.  At  length,  he  re- 
turned, and  found  the  State  in  confusion,  and 
all  parties  soliciting  his  aid  and  counsel.  Con- 
sulting the  Delphic  oracle,  and  receiving  n 
favorable  reply,  he  at  once  commenced,  with 
the  approbation  of  the  king,  a  reform  in  the 
government  He  issued  a  set  of  ordinances 
called  Rhetra^  by  which  he  effected  a  total 
revolution  in  the  political  and  military  organi- 
zation of  the  people,  and  in  their  social  and 
domestic  life* 

The  details  of  these  ordinances  it  does  not 
belong  to  our  plan  to  give,  except  so  far  as 
they  relate  to  education.     It  was  the  central 


PEOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  65 

idea  of  his  system  of  education,  that  the  child 
was  the  property,  not  of  its  parents,  but  of  the 
State.  The  officers  of  the  State  must  inspect 
it  at  its  birth,  and  if  sickly,  or  deformed,  it 
was  not  permitted  to  live. 

It  was  consigned  to  its  parents,  till  its  sev- 
enth year,  to  be  brought  up  for  the  State ;  at 
that  age,  it  was  placed  under  the  care  of 
teachers,  appointed  by  the  government,  fed 
on  the  most  scanty  and  meager  fare,  to  which, 
however,  what  could  be  obtained  by  hunting, 
and  by  theft,  was  added — if  the  theft  was 
discovered  it  was  severely  punished.  The 
physical  instruction  consisted  of  gymnastic 
exercises,  sham  fights,  wrestling,  and  annual 
scourging,  under  which  it  was  discreditable  to 
utter  any  complaint,  and  many  died  under  the 
scourge.  The  intellectual  culture  was  very 
slight,  consisting  mainly  in  some  rudimentary 
knowledge  of  arithmetic,  in  the  practice  of 
brevity  and  condensation  in  the  expression  of 
their  thoughts — whence  our  word  laconic  is 
derived — and  in  some  slight  knowledge  of 
astronomy.     The  moral   culture   consisted   in 


66  HISTORY  AND 

the  inculcation  of  truthfulness,  the  government 
of  the  passions,  and  reverence  for  the  gods. 

Females  received  substantially  the  same 
education  as  males ;  the  object  being  to  pro- 
duce the  most  perfect  and  vigorous  physical 
development:  and  hence  the  Spartan  women 
were,  in  character  and  position,  very  much 
superior  to  the  other  women  of  Greece.  This 
discipline  was  continued  not  only  to  manhood, 
but  to  middle  age.  It  produced  a  nation  of 
remarkable  physical  power  and  energy,  war- 
like, and  ready  for  any  conflict ;  but  it  ignored 
all  refinement,  all  esthetic  culture,  and  all 
scientific  attainment. 

The  proportion  of  the  Lacedemonian  popu- 
lation subjected  to  this  discipline,  was,  how- 
ever, much  smaller  than  is  generally  supposed. 
The  Spartans,  though  the  dominant  race,  were 
by  no  means  so  numerous  as  the  Penoeci,  who 
formed  the  farming  population ;  or  the  Helots, 
who  were,  like  the  Russian  serfs,  in  a  condition 
of  slavery,  or  rather  villanage; — yet  the  sys- 
tem of  discipline  was  confined  to  the  Spartans, 
who  numbered  not  more  than  9000,  and  even 


PEOGRESS   OF  EDUCATION.  6T 

these,  unless  able  to  furnish  their  proportion 
to  the  Syssttta^  or  public  mess,  were  not  ad- 
mitted to  the  privileges  of  the  system. 

Solon  (b.  c.  638)  was,  like  Lycurgus,  a  law- 
giver. He  modified  the  severity  of  the  pen- 
alties affixed  to  the  violation  of  the  laws  of 
Athens,  by  his  predecessor  Draco ;  relieved 
the  poor  from  slavery  for  debt,  and  materially 
changed  the  legislation  relative  to  debtor  and 
creditor.  The  popularity  acquired  by  these 
measures  was  so  great  that  he  was  called  upon, 
by  the  great  body  of  the  people,  to  draw  up  a 
new  code  for  the  State,  which  he  undertook, 
after  some  deliberation. 

This  code  is  mostly  extant,  and  though 
there  is  nothing  in  it  concerning  education, 
yet  the  regulations  existing  at  Athens,  while 
the  laws  of  Solon  were  in  force,  would  seem 
to  justify  the  assertions  of  later  Greek  writers, 
that  he  had  made  enactments  on  this  subject 
also. 

The  system  of  Athenian  education  recog- 
nized intellectual  culture,  as  equally  necessary 
with   physical   training.      The   State   had   an 


68  HISTORY  AND 

interest  iu  the  education  of  its  youth ;  and 
every  citizen,  under  a  severe  penalty,  was 
required  to  teach  his  son  to  read  and  to  swim; 
he  was  also  to  teach  him  some  occupation,  and 
if  he  neglected  to  do  this,  the  son  was  free 
from  the  obligation  to  support  and  care  for 
him  in  his  old  age.  But  aside  from  these 
general  enactments,  there  was  a  minutely 
detailed  system  of  education  prescribed  for 
the  children  of  Athenian  citizens.  Till  their 
seventh  year,  they  were  under  the  care  of 
their  parents.  At  that  age,  they  were  sent 
to  school,  being  accompanied  always  by  the 
naidayG)yog^  who  was  generally  a  faithful  slave, 
or  friend  of  the  family.  The  school  was  sup- 
ported by  the  State,  and  its  teachers  were  of 
two  grades,  the  ypafifiaridrrjg  or  elementary 
teacher,  who  gave  instruction  in  the  alphabet, 
spelling,  and  writing;  and  the  ypafifiariKog  or 
KptTLKog^  who  taught  his  pupils  to  commit  and 
recite,  or  declaim,  the  finest  passages  of  the 
Greek  poets  and  historians,  which  he  explained 
and  criticised,  and  also  gave  instruction  in 
poetical    composition,    music,    eloquence,    and 


PKOGKESS   OF  EDUCATION.  69 

the  principles  of  the  fine  arts.  Penmanship 
and  a  graceful  elocution  were  studies  to  which 
especial  attention  was  directed. 

Parents  were  allowed  to  direct  the  order  in 
which  their  children  should  take  up  the  dif- 
ferent studies.  When  the  youth  had  arrived 
at  manhood,  he  was  taught,  if  he  chose  to 
study  them,  ethics,  dialectics,  politics,  and 
mythology.  Mathematics  were  not  much 
taught  at  Athens,  at  least  at  this  period.  In 
this  course  of  instruction,  the  children  of  the 
poor  and  the  slaves  were  not  allowed  to  par- 
ticipate, nor  were  female  children  allowed  any 
instruction,  except  such  as  they  might  receive 
at  home. 

The  condition  of  the  female  sex,  except  the 
abandoned  portion  of  it,  at  Athens  Avas  pitia- 
ble ;  secluded  from  society  and  from  intel- 
lectual improvement,  their  lives  must  have 
been  gloomy,  dull,  and  hopeless.  To  the  - 
courtesan,  on  the  contrary,  opportunities  of 
education  and  culture  were  granted,  and  the 
learning  and  eloquence  of  some  of  these  not 
only  enabled  them  to  rule  the  leaders  of  the 


70  HISTORY  AND 

State,  but  gave  them  a  reputation  which  has 
come  down  to  our  own  times. 

Pythagoras,  born  at  Samos  604  B.C.,  was 
the  most  accomplished  scholar  and  profoundest 
thinker  of  his  day.  The  pupil  of  Anaximan- 
der  and  Thales,  he  subsequently  spent  many 
years  in  Egypt  and  other  Oriental  countries, 
where  he  acquired  the  learning  of  the  priests, 
and  the  sciences  in  which  Egypt  at  that  time 
was  pre-eminent.  Returning  thence,  he  visited 
the  States  of  Greece,  familiarized  himself  with 
the  systems  of  government  and  education  of 
Lycurgus  and  Solon,  and  finally  settled  at 
Crotona  in  Italy,  one  of  the  principal  cities 
of  the  Greek  colony,  then  known  as  Magna 
Graecia.  Here  he  was  received  with  great 
honors,  the  people  being  more  intelligent 
than  those  of  most  of  the  Greek  cities ;  and 
though  he  refused  all  direct  participation  in 
the  government,  yet,  through  his  own  influ- 
ence and  that  of  a  secret  association  of  three 
hundred  which  he  formed,  he  controlled  and 
molded  their  laws  and  institutions. 

He  was  the  first  of  the  Greek  philosophers 


PROGRESS   OF  EDUCATION.  71 

who  founded  a  school  or  sect,  which  survived 
him  for  several  hundred  years.  Like  that  of 
the  priests  and  philosophers  of  Egypt  and 
India,  his  system  of  education  was  two-fold, 
exoteric  and  esoteric^  but,  unlike  theirs,  both 
were  based  on  the  same  principle,  and  the 
latter  was  but  the  more  perfect  development 
of  the  former.  No  previous  philosopher  had 
attained  to  such  wide,  grand,  and  comprehen- 
sive views  as  those  which  he  enunciated,  and 
none  had  ever  propagated  them  by  similar 
means. 

With  far  greater  learning,  he  yet  resembled, 
in  the  vastness  of  his  conceptions,  his  knowl- 
edge of  human  nature  and  its  springs  of 
action,  and  his  power  of  controlling  mind, 
Ignatius  Loyola,  more  nearly  than  any  man  of 
ancient  or .  modern  times.  The  foundation  of 
all  science,  in  his  view,  lay  in  the  harmony  of 
the  universe,  and  though  his  conceptions  of 
the  order,  harmony,  and  music  of  the  heav- 
enly bodies  seems  to  have  been  vague,  yet  it 
was  sufficient  to  inspire  his  disciples  with  awe 
and  interest 


72  HISTOKY  AND 

Man,  he  contended,  was  but  the  universe  in 
epitome,  and  since  the  Kosmos  was  ruled  by 
the  laws  of  harmony,  it  was  becoming  that  in 
the  affairs  of  man,  the  MikvoTcosmos^  there 
should  be  no  discords.  The  attainment  of 
this  perfect  harmony  was  the  object  of  all 
education,  and  man  could  attain  it  by  purifi- 
cation of  the  soul,  by  self-knowledge,  and  by 
devotion. 

His  idea  of  purification  implied,  not  only 
the  complete  regulation  of  the  life,  the  sub- 
duing of  the  passions,  and  the  performance  of 
good  deeds,  but  also  involved  his  doctrine  of 
metempsychosis,  or  transmigration  of  souls. 
In  self-knowledge  was  implied  also  a  mastery 
of  social  knowledge,  since  society  was  but  a 
larger  self,  and  of  the  laws  which  govern  the 
kosmos :  and  hence  included  science.  Mathe- 
matics and  music,  in  its  comprehensive  Grecian 
sense,  as  comprising  not  only  melody,  but 
poetical  composition,  the  fine  arts  and  elo- 
quence, were  among  the  necessary  aids  to  this 
self-knowledge,  and  profound  reflection  was 
indispensable.      He    regulated   the   diet    and 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION*  73 

exercise  of  his  pupils  with  the  most  scrupu 
lous  care.  Nor  was  he  less  observant  of  the 
morals  and  manners  of  his  disciples ;  chastity 
and  purity  of  thought  and  language,  courtesy, 
benevolence,  and  self-sacrificing  friendship 
were  earnestly  inculcated.  The  friendship  of 
Damon  and  Pythias,  so  celebrated  in  ancient 
times,  was  cemented  under  his  instruction,  for 
they  were  his  pupils. 

His  esoteric  course,  to  which  only  his 
favorite  disciples  were  admitted,  though 
hedged  in  from  the  vulgar  crowd  by  various 
rites  and  ceremonies,  seems  to  have  been  only 
a  more  complete  development  of  the  exoteric 
course;  extending  the  scientific  training  to 
a  knowledge  of  astronomy,  ethics,  and  the 
higher  mathematics,  and  probably,  also,  to 
some  departments  of  natural  science.  His 
instructions  were  not  confined  to  his  own  sex, 
many  of  his  female  pupils  afterward  distin- 
guishing themselves  as  authors. 
\  4 


PEOGKESS   OF  EDUCATION.  77 

descended  to  our  times  concerning  his  own 
teachings. 

Plato,  born  at  Athens,  429  b.  c,  was  a 
descendant  of  Solon  and  of  Codrus.  At 'the 
age  of  twenty  he  became  a  follower  of  Socra- 
tes, whose  instruction  he  enjoyed  for  ten  years. 
After  the  death  of  his  friend  and  master,  he 
traveled  extensively,  and  subsequently  gath- 
ered round  him  a  body  of  disciples,  to  whom, 
in  the  gardens  of  Academia,  he  expounded 
the  views  and  principles  of  his  master,  as 
well  as  those  which  his  own  grand  and  lofty 
intellect  had  wrought  out.  In  his  ''''  Repuhlic^'' 
and  in  his  ^^Laws^^^  he  lays  down  his  theory 
of  education,  a  theoty  probably  never  fully 
reduced  to  practice,  but  which  exerted  a 
powerful  influence  on  his  nation  for  cen- 
turies. 

During  the  eighteen  or  twenty  years  of  his 
absence  from  Athens,  he  had  visited  Egypt 
and  Persia,  and  studied  attentively  their  sys- 
tems of  education  and  religious  culture;  he 
had  also  mastered,  in  detail,  the  laws  and 
institutions  of  Lycurgus   at   Sparta,   and   ob- 


/ 


78  HISTORY  AKti 

served  the  results  of  more  than  two  hundred 
and  fifty  years'  experience  under  them. 

We  find  traces  of  the  effect  of  these  studies, 
in  his  scheme  of  a  republic.  Like  Lycurgus, 
he  regarded  the  children  as  the  property  of 
the  State,  and  even  recommended  a  commu- 
nity of  wives,  that  there  might  be  no  impedi- 
ment to  the  exercise  of  the  parental  power 
over  them  by  the  State,  and  that  the  physical 
beauty  and  vigor  of  the  children  might  be 
increased.  He  opposed  all  education,  except 
in  their  particular  trades  and  in  subjection  to 
the  laws,  to  the  artisan  and  laboring  classes ; 
while  he  would  have  the  military  class  very 
thoroughly  trained.  This  training  he  would 
have  commenced  as  early  as  the  third  year,  for 
he  believed  infancy  the  most  important  period 
of  human  life,  inasmuch  as  the  impressions 
then  made  were  never  effaced. 

Regarding  a  good  teacher  as  one  of  the 
most  essential  conditions  for  the  formation  of 
good  pupils,  he  lays  down  rules,  in  his  '^  So- 
pMstes^^^  for  distinguishing  between  a  good  and 
a  bad  teacher;  and  he  recommends  to  those 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  79 

in  power  to  exercise  the  utmost  scrutiny  and 
care  in  the  selection  of  instructors,  who  were 
to  be  paid  by  the  State.  Plato  could  not, 
with  his  Greek  notions  of  physical  training, 
avoid  giving  great  prominence  to  gymnastic 
exercises  as  a  means  of  education,  but  he 
abated  much  of  the  Spartan  severity  both  of 
exercise  and  diet,  still  retaining,  however,  suf- 
ficient to  maintain  the  body  in  health  and 
vigor. 

To  temper  its  tendency  to  make  the  man 
hard,  harsh,  and  ferocious  in  his  nature,  he 
would  have  him  pursue  musical  culture  in 
connection  with  gymnastics.  We  have  already 
explained  the  sense  in  which  the  Greeks  used 
the  word  music^  as  implying  all  those  studies 
which,  in  their  mythology,  were  assigned  to 
the  care  of  the  nine  Muses.  Plato  seems,  how- 
ever, to  have  laid  more  stress  on  music  proper 
than  any  of  his  predecessors  had  done,  and  to 
have  cultivated  it  to  a  higher  degree  of  per- 
fection. 

For  the  intellectual  culture  of  his  pupils,  he 
recommended   the   thorough   study   of  arith- 


80  HISTOKY  AND 

metic,  geometry,  and  astronomy ;  and  if  they 
would  attain  to  eminence,  philosophy  also,  as 
the  sublimest  of  all  intellectual  pursuits.  He 
would  not,  of  course,  neglect  rhetoric,  decla- 
mation, and  the  art  of  poetical  composition, 
nor  the  principles  of  taste,  which  were  indis- 
pensable in  Athenian  society.  Moral  culture 
was  also  a  subject  of  consideration  with  him, 
and  he  urges,  in  strong  terms,  the  necessity  of 
reverence  for  the  gods,  respect  for  parents, 
obedience  to  the  laws,  and  chastity  and  purity 
of  life. 

The  ''foremost  man  of  all  the  Greeks,"  how- 
ever, in  general  learning,  in  genius,  and  in  his 
devotion  to  education,  was  Aristotle.  Born 
at  Stageira,  a  city  of  Thrace,  384  b.  c,  of  in- 
telligent and  noble  parentage,  his  father  Ni- 
comachus  being  an  eminent  physician  and 
author,  and  the  friend  of  Amyntas  II.,  king  of 
Macedonia,  the  young  Aristotle  started  in  life 
with  more  external  advantages  than  any  of  his 
predecessors,  and  his  keen  perceptions  and 
vivacious  temperament  enabled  him,  under  the 
genial  training  of  his  father,  early  to  acquire 


PEOGEESS  OF  EDUCATION.  81 

knowledge.  After  his  father's  death,  which 
occurred  while  he  was  yet  a  child,  he  was 
instructed  by  one  Proxenus,  a  friend  of  his 
father,  then  residing  at  Stageira.  At  the  age 
of  seventeen  he  repaired  to  Athens,  drawn 
thither  by  the  fame  of  its  eminent  teachers, 
and  especially  of  Plato,  then  in  the  maturity 
of  his  great  powers. 

About  the  time  of  his  arrival  there,  Plato 
sailed  for  Sicily,  where  he  remained  for  three 
years.  Aristotle,  nevertheless,  improved  this 
period,  by  studying  under  the  eminent  teach- 
ers still  remaining  at  Athens ;  and  on  Plato's 
return,  he  at  once  became  his  pupil.  His 
mental  activity  caused  Plato  soon  to  distin- 
guish him  as  the  mind  (yov^^  of  his  school,  and 
of  the  many  brilliant  intellects  gathered  there 
from  all  the  adjacent  countries,  no  one  seems 
seriously  to  have  contested  the  palm  with  him. 
Fond  of  teaching,  he  probably  had  some  pupils 
for  a  time  in  Athens  before  Philip  of  Macedon 
placed  his  son,  afterward  Alexander  the  Great, 
under  his  charge.  For  four  years  he  labored 
zealously  to  make  his  illustrious  pupil  eminent 

4« 


82  HlSTOllY  AND 

in  science,  as  he  afterward  became  in  arms; 
and  the  impress  of  his  teachings  was  visible 
in  many  incidents  of  Alexander's  subsequent 
career. 

He  ever  reverenced  his  instructorj  and  lav- 
ished on  him  abundant  wealth  and  facilities 
for  the  prosecution  of  his  favorite  study  of 
natural  history.  Released  from  his  charge  as 
tutor,  by  the  death  of  Philip  and  the  succession 
of  Alexander  to  the  throne  of  Macedon,  Aris- 
totle returned  to  Athens,  and  there  established 
a  school,  called  the  Lyceum,  from  its  neighbor- 
hood to  the  temple  of  Apollo  Lyceius.  Here, 
for  thirteen  years,  he  taught  two  classes  daily, 
walking  in  the  garden  or  grove,  and  lecturing 
as  he  walked,  whence  he  and  his  disciples 
received  the  name  of  Peripatetics, 

His  morning  lecture  was  addressed  to  the 
more  advanced  of  his  pupils,  and  treated  of 
dialectics,  physical  science,  and  the  more  pro- 
found topics  of  philosophy ;  his  afternoon 
lectures  or  walks  were  addressed  to  a  larger 
company,  and  in  these  he  discussed  political, 
ethical,    and    rhetorical   questions.      His   vast 


PROGEESS   OF  EDUCATION.  83 

learning  brought  to  his  school  eminent  men 
from  every  part  of  the  then  known  world,  and 
the  influence  of  his  philosophy  has  come  down 
even  to  our  own  times,  while  the  discoveries 
of  our  most  eminent  naturalists  are  constantly 
confirming  the  observations  made  by  the 
Greek  philosopher  2200  years  ago. 

His  ^^ Polities'^  includes  a  treatise  on  educa- 
tion, only  a  part  of  which  is  preserved.  This 
work,  unlike  the  Republic  of  Plato,  is  not  a 
description  of  a  theoretic  State,  but  an  elab- 
orate discussion  of  the  principles  of  gov- 
ernment. 

He  may  be  justly  regarded  as  the  first  really 
scientific  teacher  of  youth,  and  his  educational 
essay  is  evidently  a  summary  of  his  own  obser- 
vation and  experience.  He  extended,  some- 
what, the  topics  of  study,  and  though  he 
enumerates  but  four  principal  branches  as 
necessary — viz. :  gymnastics,  music,  grammar, 
or  the  study  of  language,  and  the  arts  of 
design — ^it  is  evident  that  he  included  in 
these  more  than  we  now  do.  Geography,  in 
which   Thales    and   Anaximander   had   made 


84:  HISTORY  AND 

some  progress,  under  the  plastic  hands  of 
Aristotle  assumed  the  form  of  a  science. 

Natural  history,  through  his  extensive  ob- 
servations and  his  inductive  reasoning,  became 
a  science  of  fair  proportions.  Logic  he  in- 
vented, and  his  use  of  the  syllogism  was  the 
commencement  of  a  new  era  in  the  art  of 
reasoning.  Mathematics  he  regarded  as  of 
great  importance  for  a  thorough  education, 
and  a  knowledge  of  politics,  or  the  science  of 
government,  as  necessary  to  the  intelligent 
citizen.  He  urged  the  right  of  woman  to 
education,  but  asserted  that  the  slaves  should 
not  be  taught  any  thing  beyond  obedience  to 
their  masters. 

The  influence  of  Aristotle's  lectures  and 
works  upon  his  followers  and  their  pupils,  for 
many  of  them  taught  in  public,  led  to  a  still 
greater  enlargement  of  the  bounds  of  science, 
and  to  the  systemization  of  a  complete  course 
of  instruction,  known,  some  three  centuries 
after  his  time,  as  the  eyKVKXia  Tcatdeviiara^  from 
whence  comes  our  word  encyclopedia. 

This  ''circle  of  sciences"  consisted,  in  the 


PKOGEESS  OF  EDUCATION.  85 

Alexandrian  schools,  at  the  commencement  of 
the  Christian  era,  of  the  seven  liberal  arts- 
grammar,  rhetoric,  dialectics,  arithmetic,  ge- 
ometry, astronomy,  and  music.  But  rhetoric 
was  also  cultivated  aside  frouL  the  other 
studies. 

Athens,  from  the  time  of  Plato  and  Aris- 
totle, became  the  resort  of  those  who  sought  a 
superior  education,  and  though  the  morals  and 
manners  of  its  people  greatly  degenerated,  and 
its  professors  of  philosophy  and  science  taught 
for  the  sake  of  fees,  a  practice  which  Socrates, 
Plato,  and  Aristotle  denounced;  and  though 
they  too  often  sought  popularity  by  pandering 
to  corrupt  tastes,  yet,  for  five  or  six  centuries, 
it  maintained  its  pre-eminence. 

About  a  hundred  years  after  the  death  of 
Aristotle,  Alexandria  began  to  be  its  most 
formidable  rival ;  and  during  the  sway  of  the 
Ptolemaic  dynasty,  the  noble  libraries  and  the 
high  repute  of  the  grammarians,  or  professors 
in  its  schools,  attracted  almost  as  many  youth 
from  abroad  as  Athens.  The  character  of  the 
teaching,  in  both  cities,  was  far  inferior  to  that 


86  HISTORY  AND 

of  the  time  of  Aristotle.  The  logic  and  dia- 
lectics which  he  taught,  and  which  he  intended 
as  aids  in  the  exercise  of  the  reasoning  facul- 
ties, had  been  perverted  to  the  consideration 
of  silly  quibbles;  and  volumes  were  written 
and  months  of  argument  passed,  in  the  discus- 
sion of  questions  which,  when  decided,  added 
nothing  to  the  sum  of  human  knowledge.  For 
five  centuries  no  man  stood  forth  among  this 
host  of  philosophers  and  dialecticians,  to  make 
any  valuable  additions  to  science  or  to  philos- 
ophy. 

In  the  review  of  Greek  education,  we  find 
that  it  was,  from  the  first,  considered  the  affair 
of  the  State ;  that,  for  the  most  part,  the  sys- 
tem of  education  was  designed  to  fit  men  for 
military  life,  though,  in  the  later  periods, 
reference  was  also  had  to  political  life;  that 
generally,  women,  except  the  most  abandoned, 
were  denied  its  privileges ;  that  it  was  only 
the  children  of  the  aristocracy,  those  who 
could  live  without  labor,  who  received  its 
advantages ;  that  artisans,  laborers,  and  the 
serfs  and  slaves  were  rigorously  forbidden  all 


PROGKESS  OF  EDUCATION.  87 

participation  in  it;  that,  in  the  earlier  ages, 
the  education  was  physical  and  moral,  rather 
than  intellectual,  while,  in  the  later  ages, 
moral  culture  was  neglected,  and  intellectual 
education  usurped  its  place ;  that  the  favorite 
studies  of  the  Greeks  were  rather  rhetoric, 
dialectics,  ethics,  metaphysics,  and  so  much  of 
the  mathematics  as  would  aid  them  in  becom- 
ing skillful  reasoners  and  ready  debaters,  than 
the  pursuit  of  natural  or  high  mathematical 
science ;  that  while  they  understood  their  own 
language  well,  they  had  no  taste  for  linguistics 
in  general,  regarding  other  nations  as  barba- 
rians, and  their  languages  as  imperfect 


PEOGKESS   Oi"  EDUCATION.  89 


CHAPTER  VII. 

The  Komans. — Early  education  mainly  moral  and  physical. — Intro- 
duction of  Greek  instruction. — Education  under  the  Empire. — Ten- 
dencies of  the  Koman  less  intellectual  than  those  of  the  Greek. 
— Female  education  not  general. — Quintilian. — Varro. — The  orphan 
schools  of  Antoninus  Pius. — The  Druids, — Little  known  of  their 
system  of  education. 

The  Romans  seem*  never  to  have  entertained 
the  idea  that  it  was  the  duty  of  the  State  to 
educate  the  children  of  its  citizens.  In  the 
early  periods  of  their  history,  education  was 
entirely  domestic,  and  the  amount  of  intel- 
lectual culture  was  very  scanty.  The  father 
possessed  absolute  power  over  his  family,  even 
to  the  taking  of  life ;  but  this  power,  though 
exercised  with  considerable  severity  and 
sternness,  seems  to  have  been  seldom  abused. 
The  father  was  regarded  with  reverence  and 
respect,  seldom,  .  perhaps,  with  very  strong 
affection,  for  the  Latin  word  ptetas^  which 
expressed  the  emotion  of  the  dutiful  child  to 
his  parent,  can  hardly  be  thought  to  imply 


90  HISTORY  AND 

much  of  love.  Physical  training  was  not 
neglected,  and  the  moral  culture  was  probably 
of  a  higher  character  than  that  of  any  other 
nation,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the 
Hebrews. 

The  ability  to  read  and  write  were  rare 
acquirements,  and  these,  with  perhaps  some 
knowledge  of  arithmetic,  were  only  imparted 
to  a  few  of  the  children  of,  patrician  parents. 
The  legend  of  Virginia  relates  that  ''she  was 
going  to  her  school  in  the  tabernae  of  the 
forum,"  when  the  client  of  Appius  Claudius 
seized  her ;  but  as  there  is  no  other  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  a  school  in  the  forum,  and 
especially  for  girls,  till  several  centuries  later, 
we  must  consider  this  as  an  embellishment, 
added  to  the  story  by  a  later  hand. 

That  writing  was  but  little  known  or  prac- 
ticed, and  that  the  early  history  of  Rome  was 
(except  some  brief  annals  which  were  burned 
by  the  Gauls,  390  b.  c.)  mostly  transmitted  by 
oral  tradition,  is  distinctly  testified  by  Livy. 
It  was  not  until  the  Romans  had  conquered 
the   Italian  cities  settled  by  Greek  colonies, 


PROGRESS   OF  EDUCATION.  91 

such  as  Tarentum,  Crotona,  and  Syracuse,  that 
the  literature,  the  philosophy,  and  the  educa- 
tional systems  of  Greece  began  to  exert  an 
influence  on  them. 

After  that  period,  Greek  teachers  and  phi- 
losophers came  to  Rome  in  crowds ;  and, 
though  Cato  the  Censor  and  others,  dreading 
their  influence,  attempted  to  drive  them  from 
the  city,  they  had  obtained  too  strong  a  foot- 
hold to  be  dislodged.  The  Greek  literature 
was  adopted  almost  without  modification,  and 
no  Roman  scholar  was  ignorant  of  it.  The 
philosophy  was  not  so  readily  received,  and 
but  for  the  education  of  the  young  Romans  in 
Athens,  would  hardly  have  established  itself ; 
for  the  Roman  was  harder,  coarser,  and  less 
susceptible  of  esthetic  culture  than  the 
Greek ;  he  delighted  more  in  blood,  and  less 
in  beauty ;  more  in  facts,  and  less  in  specula- 
tion ;  more  in  the  real,  and  less  in  the  ideal. 
It  was  not,  therefore,  till  the  best  traits  of  his 
character  were  lost,  in  the  luxury  and  sensu- 
ality of  the  later  years  of  the  republic,  that 
he  began  to  take  kindly  to  the  rhetoric,  the 


92  HISTORY  AND 

dialectics,  and  the  philosophy  of  the  Greeks, 
and,  indeed,  the  descendants  of  the  old  Ro- 
mans never  fairly  mastered  them. 

The  distinguished  teachers,  as  well  as  the 
celebrated  writers,  of  Rome  were,  for  the  most 
part,  either  natives  of  the  colonies  or  prov- 
inces, or  freedmen,  who  had  once  been  the 
slaves  of  the  wealthy.  Schools  for  instruction 
in  grammar,  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  elocu- 
tion, existed  in  Rome  for  more  than  a  hundred 
years  before  the  Christian  era,  and  some  of 
the  teachers  attained  eminence  ;  but  these 
schools  were  attended  only  by  the  children 
of  the  wealthy,  and  the  young  men  went  to 
Athens,  Rhodes,  or  Alexandria,  to  finish  their 
education. 

The  masses  were  not  educated,  or  intelli- 
gent ;  they  took  little  interest  in  the  dramatic 
representations  which  were  translated  from 
the  Greek,  and  which  possessed  extraordinary 
merit ;  if  an  author  attempted  to  exhibit  an 
original  drama,  he  was  persecuted  and  abused, 
until  he  abandoned  the  effort  in  disgust ;  the 
only  public   exhibitions  which  attracted  the 


PEOGRESS   OF  EDUCATION.  93 

attention  and  received  the  plaudits  of  the 
populace,  were  the  pantomimes,  whose  prin- 
cipal recommendation  was  their  indecency, 
and  the  gladiatorial  shows,  where  cruelty  was 
added  to  the  indecency. 

A  few  of  her  eminent  men  distinguished 
themselves  as  orators,  poets,  and  historians, 
and  some  of  these,  like  Tacitus  and  Sallust, 
developed  the  power  of  the  language  for 
vigorous  and  condensed  expression ;  but  most, 
like  Cicero,  Caesar,  Virgil,  and  Horace,  betray, 
unconsciously  perhaps,  but  yet  clearly,  that 
they  are  indebted  to  the  Greek  poets  and 
orators  for  many  of  their  thoughts,  and  even 
for  their  forms  of  expression.  The  later  poets 
differ  from  the  Greek  poets,  but  only  in  the 
inblushing  license  and  obscenity  of  their  lan- 
guage, which  would  have  rendered  their 
writings  highly  offensive  to  the  esthetic  sense 
of  the  Greeks. 

In  one  particular,  however,  the  Romans 
might  justly  claim  superiority  over  the  other 
nations  of  the  world.  Their  architecture  was 
wonderful  for  its  solidity  and  grace,  and  they 


94:  HISTORY  AND 

filled  not  Rome  only,  but  the  world,  at  least 
so  much  of  it  as  they  subdued  and  colonized, 
with  their  enduring  structures.  The  traveler 
of  to-day,  whether  he  visit  northern  Africa, 
far  on  toward,  the  confines  of  the  desert, 
England,  France,  Spain,  Germany,  southern 
Russia,  Turkey,  or  the  cities  of  Asia  Minor, 
Palestine,  or  Arabia,  finds  everywhere  dwell- 
ings, castles,  aqueducts,  or  bridges,  which 
have  defied  alike  the  erosions  of  time,  the 
shock  of  earthquakes,  and  the  desolating 
progress  of  successive  armies  of  invaders. 
The  perfection  and  durability  of  these  struc- 
tures necessarily  imply  a  high  degree  of 
mathematical  and  geometrical  knowledge,  and 
hence  indicate  that  the  architects,  if  not  the 
artisans,  who  erected  them,  must .  have  been 
well-educated. 

The  period  between  the  commencement  of 
the  Christian  era  and  the  conversion  of  Con- 
stantine,  during  which  Rome  was  yet  pagan, 
though  a  period  of  moral  degradation,  was 
one  in  which  literature  and  intellectual  culture 
flourished,  more  than  at  any  previous  time,  in 


PKOGKESS  OF  EDUCATION.  95 

the  Roman  Empire.  Augustus  and  his  min- 
ister Maecenas  were  patrons  of  literature  and 
promoters  of  education.  To  the  right  of  citi- 
zenship, which  Julius  Caesar  had  conferred  on 
foreign  grammarians  and  other  teachers,  as 
well  as  physicians,  who  settled  at  Rome,  Au- 
gustus added  their  exoneration  from  public 
offices  and  other  occupations. 

During  his  administration,  also,  several  new 
schools,  of  high  repute,  were  established  in  the 
the  provinces,  to  which  young  men  flocked  in 
great  numbers;  such  were  Mytilene,  Massilia 
(now  Marseilles),  and  Corduba  in  Spain.  The 
first  institution  resembling  a  college,  in  the 
Roman  Empire,  was  founded  by  Vespasian 
(a.  d.  69-79),  who  appointed  Quintilian  a 
public  professor  of  eloquence,  giving  him  a 
salary  from  the  public  funds,  and  also  em- 
ployed, with  salaries,  several  other  professors 
of  rhetoric. 

What  Vespasian  originated,  Adrian  (a.  d. 
117-138),  carried  out  to  completion;  found- 
ing in  the  capital  an  institution,  called  the 
Athenaeum,  and  appointing  a  corps  of  profes- 


96  HISTORY  AND 

sors  of  grammar,  as  well  as  rhetoric,  with 
respectable  salaries.  Antoninus  Pius,  his  suc- 
cessor (a.  d.  138-161),  not  only  added  a  pro- 
fessorship of  philosophy  to  the  Athenaeum,  but 
established  a  similar  institution  in  the  most 
important  cities  of  the  Empire.  The  course 
pursued  by  the  professors  was,  according  to 
the  testimony  of  Suetonius,  Gellius,  Quintilian, 
and  others,  to  expound  the  writings  of  Cicero 
and  the  poems  of  Virgil,  Horace,  Statins,  &c., 
in  the  Latin  language,  and  of  the  principal 
Greek  authors  in  the  Greek.  The  grammari- 
ans certified,  at  stated  times,  the  progress 
made  by  their  pupils,  urging  them  forward 
by  the  influence  of  emulation,  and  still  more 
by  the  use  of  the  rod. 

Among  the  Roman  writers  on  education,  we 
may  mention  M.  Terentius  Varro,  ''the  most 
learned  man  in  Rome,"  and  one  of  her  most 
voluminous  writers.  He  was  born  116  b.  c, 
and  died  about  27  b.  c.  Of  his  work,  entitled 
''  Capys^  aut  de  liber  is  educandis^^^  only  a  few 
fragments  now  remain.  Cicero  treats  of  edu- 
cation, incidentally,  in  his  ^^  De  Officiisy     M. 


PROGBESS  OF  EDUCATION.  97 

Fabius  Quinctilianus,  or,  as  he  is  usually  called, 
Quintilian,  the  most  celebrated  rhetorician  of 
his  age  (a.  d.  42-120),  also  speaks,  at  length, 
of  the  existing  systems  of  education,  and  sug- 
gests improvements,  in  the  first  book  of  his 
^^Institutio  Oratoria^'^  which  is  still  extant. 

Antoninus  Pius  (a.  d.  138-161)  was  the 
first  Roman  monarch,  and  probably  the  first 
pagan  monarch,  who  ever  established  a  school 
for  orphans.  At  the  death  of  his  wife,  Annia 
Faustina  (a.  d.  138),  to  whom,  notwithstand- 
ing her  reputed  ill-conduct,  he  was  tenderly 
attached,  he  established  a  school  for  orphan 
and  foundling  girls,  whom  he  named  ^''Puellce 
Faustinian(Ey  The  success  of  this  seems  to 
have  incited  him  to  establish  similar  schools 
for  both  sexes,  which  were  called  ^^Pueri  et 
Puellce  Alimentariiy  Five  medals  now  in 
existence,  of  dates  corresponding  to  141,  149, 
151,  160,  and  161,  A.  d.,  testify  to  the  organi- 
zation  of  these  schools  in  different  cities. 

Several  centuries  before  the  Christian  era, 
there  existed  in  the  British  islands  a  form  of 
civilization,  and  an  intellectual  and  religious 


98  HISTORY  AND 

culture,  known  as  Druidism,  bearing  marks  of 
foreign  derivation,  yet  exerting  a  powerful 
influence  on  the  people.  It  was  apparently  of 
Grecian  or  Oriental  origin,  as  the  educated 
classes  used  the  Greek  language,  while  its 
religious  forms  and  ceremonies  indicated  an 
affinity  with  Egypt  or  India.  But  few  reliable 
data  of  this  religious  system  have  been  trans- 
mitted to  our  time,  for  the  Roman  culture  and 
worship  almost  entirely  effaced  it  from  the 
memories  of  the  people,  and  the  introduction 
of  new  nations,  Romans,  Saxons,  Danes,  and 
Normans,  have  obliterated  the  little  that  re- 
mained. 

We  know,  however,  that  its  chief  seat  was 
on  the  island  of  Mona,  or  Anglesey ;  that  the 
priestly  and  legislative  power  were  held  by 
the  same  persons ;  that  they  gave  instruction, 
usually,  in  the  open  air,  and  under  the  wide- 
spreading  boughs  of  an  oak  (a  tree  which  they 
held  sacred),  to  tbe  youth  of  the  wealthier 
^  and  priestly  classes,  in  reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic, geography,  the  mysteries  of  nature,  a^d 
the  peculiar  tenets  of  their  religious  system, 


PROGRESS   OF  EDUCATION.  99 

With  these  instructions  something  of  mys- 
tery was  always  mingled ;  many  of  them  were 
never  committed  to  writing;  and  there  was, 
for  those  who  were  intended  for  the  Druidical 
priesthood,  an  esoteric  course,  like  the  Brah- 
minical  instruction  of  India.  This  Druidical 
system  had  also  pervaded,  to  some  extent,  the 
north  of  Europe,  though  the  daring  and  ad- 
venturous spirit,  and  the  exuberance  of  animal 
life,  in  the  Scandinavian  races,  had  modified 
its  traditions,  and  while  they  added  to  their 
fierceness,  violence,  and  cruelty,  had  almost 
ignored  their  intellectual  characteristics. 


^  (^-^^'^' 


CHAPTEK   VIII. 

Education  among  the  Arabs  and  Saracens. — Per'od  prior  to  Moham- 
med.— Influence  of  Mohammed. — The  Ommiades  and  Abassides. 
— The  translation  of  Aristotle. — Spain,  the  principal  seat  of  Saracen 
learning. — Its  extent. — Mexican  provision  for  education. — The  Cal- 
mecac. — Picture  writing.— Their  calendar. — The  Council  of  Music 
and  its  duties. — Mexican  poetrjiT— The  Peruvians. — Their  intellec- 
tual culture  less  extensive  than  the  Mexican. — The  Quij^u.—'X^iQ 
ballads  of  the  haravecs. — Agriculture  among  the  Peruvians. 

Before  speaking  of  education  as  influenced 
by  Christianity,  we  must  give  a  brief  account 
of  its  progress  among  the  Arabs,  under  the 
sway  of  Mohammed  and  his  successors;  and 
also  among  the  Mexicans  and  Peruvians, 
where,  as  among  the  nations  already  noticed, 
it  was  not  modified  by  the  influence  of 
Christianity. 

The  Arabs,  prior  to  the  advent  of  Moham- 
med, were  not  distinguished  for  intellectual 
culture;  those  of  them  who  dwelt  in  towns 
had  attained  to  about  the  same  amount  of 
education  with  the  early  Hebrews ;  those  who 
were  nomadic  had  even  less;  the  instruction 


102  HISTORY  AND 

was  almost  wholly  domestic,  and  mainly  physi- 
cal and  moral.  / 

/  Few  among  them  could  read,  and  fewer  still 
could  write  ;  yet  the  poetical  element  was 
highly  developed,  and  the  family,  tribal,  and 
national  history  were  embalmed  in  a  rude  but 
impassioned  poetry,  which  young  and  old  had 
conimitted  to  memory ;  every  tribe,  indeed 
almost  every  section  of  a  tribe,  had  its  bard, 
who  was  ever  a  welcome  and  honored  guest, 
and  for  whom,  even  in  times  of  hunger  and 
privation,  the  best  was  always  reserved  ;  these 
bards  acted,  in  some  sense,  as  the  school- 
masters of  the  nation.  The  pilgrimages  to 
Mecca,  where  the  Kaaba,  or  sacred  black 
stone  (an  aerolite,  probably),  which  was  fabled 
to  have  descended  from  heaven,  rested,  also 
had  their  share  in  the  education  of  the  people, 
bringing  together,  as  they  did,  pilgrims  from 
every  part  of  Arabia,  and  from  adjacent 
countries. 

/  The  state  of  morals  among'  the  Arabs,  at 
this  period,  was  much  higher  than  that  of  the 
nations  around  them.     They,  of  all  the  Orien- 


PROGRESS   OF  EDUCATION.  103 

tals,  were  monogamists,  and  though  the  social 
rank  of  woman  was  not  so  high  as  with  us,  it 
was  higher  than  elsewhere  in  the  east.^  They 
were,  perhaps,  idolaters,  but  their  pantheon 
was  small,  and  confined  to  the  inferior  deities ; 
and  in  (their  social  character,  hospitality, 
ardent  friendship,  a  high  sense  of  honor,  and 
indomitable  courage  were  marked  traits.y 

Mohammed,  born  about  a.  d.  570,  and,  after  . 
his  fortieth  year,  professing  to  be  divinely 
inspired,  wrought  a  most  wonderful  change  in 
the  character  ^  of  these  wild  descendants  of 
Ishmael.  Whether  we  regard  him  as  an  en- 
thusiast, a  fanatic,  or  a  deceiver,  we  can  not 
fail  to  see  that  his  system  possessed  many 
features  wonderfully  attractive  to  a  people 
like  the  Arabs,  and  that  once  received  by 
them  as  a  divine  revelation,  it  must  necessarily 
modify  their  whole  subsequent  history.  It  is 
foreign  to  our  purpose  to  consider  the  Koran 
in  any  other  relation  than  that  of  its  bearing 
upon  education. 

We  find  Mohammed  enjoining  it  as  a  sacred 
duty  upoi    his  followers  to  read  the  Koran ; 


104  HISTORY  AND 

the  necessity  and  advantages  (spiritual  as  well 
as  temporal)  of  learning  are  prominent  topics 
in  it;  yet  the  social  position  of  woman  was 
lowered,  polygamy  permitted  and  practiced 
by  the  prophet  himself,  and  the  relation  of 
parent  and  child  debased  rather  than  honored. 
Idolatry  was  forbidden,  but  pilgrimages  to 
Mecca  and  Medina,  thenceforth  to  be  sacred 
shrines,  from  their  connection  with  the  prophet, 
allowed  and  enjoined. 
yT  A  new  impulse,  a  fresh  start,  was  given  to 
7  the  Arabic  mind,  which  made  it  for  the  next 
2"vSix  centuries  the  leading  intellect  of  the  world. 
But  though  this  wondrous  intellectual  advance- 
ment, in  a  people  Avho  had  hitherto  taken  no 
prominent  part  in  the  world's  civilization,  re- 
sulted from  the  change  effected  by  the  intro- 
duction of  his  professed  revelations,  yet,  in  the 
subsequent  mental  development  of  that  people, 
very  little  is  due  to  Mohammed's  influence. 
The  first  demonstration  of  the  new  religion 
.  was  a  bloody  conflict;  for  almost  a  century 
the  Khalifs  extended  the  empire  of  their  faith 
by  the  sword,  fighting  as  men  always  do  who 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  105 

have  a  strong,  earnest  conviction,  a  tangible 
faith,  to  fight  for,  and  conquering,  of  course. 

It  was  not  till  this  warlike  fervor  had  passed 
away,  and  the  successors  of  the  prophet  saw 
the  whole  of  Arabia,  Palestine,  Persia,  a  great 
part  of  India,  Egypt,  and  northern  Africa 
subjected  to  the  faith  of  Islam,  that  they 
settled  down  quietly  to  the  more  intellectual 
development  of  their  creed. 

The  children  were  to  be  taught  the  Koran, 
and,  as  if  by  magic,  thousands  of  schools  were 
opened  to  instruct  them  in  reading;  serious 
differences  of  opinion  had  arisen  in  relation  to 
the  proper  interpretation  of  the  sacred  book, 
and  schools  of  learning,  whose  ultimate  object 
was  to  throw  light  upon  the  dark  places  in  it, 
were  organized. 

The  profound  investigations  deemed  neces- 
sary for  this  purpose  led  to  the  introduction  of 
other  sciences  and  to  the  study  of  the  Greek 
writers,  some  of  whose  works  had  been  trans- 
lated into  the  Syrian  tongue  by  the  Nestorians, 
and  perhaps  also  into  Arabic,  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury ;  Aristotle  began  to  be  a  familiar  aucjior 

6« 


106  HISTORY  AND 

with  learned  Saracens,  and  Arabic  literature 
was  enriched  with  numberless  works  in  every 
department  of  science. 

Libraries  were  found  to  be  indispensable, 
and  the  Ommiade  and  Abasside  Khalifs,  lovers 
and  patrons  of  learning,  collected  at  Bagdad, 
at  Damascus,  and  other  cities  of  the  East, 
books  in  such  quantities  as  seem  to  us,  even 
with  modern  facilities  for  their  multiplication, 
almost  fabulous. 

In  mathematics,  they  invented  algebra;  in 
medicine,  they  made  greater  progress  than 
had  been  attained  since  the  days  of  Hippoc- 
rates ;  in  their  researches  in  alchemy,  they 
laid  the  foundations  of  chemical  science ;  in 
astronomy,  they  made  greater  discoveries  in 
the  starry  heavens,  in  the  planetary  systems, 
and  in  the  motions  of  the  earth  and  the  sun, 
than  all  who  had  gone  before  them.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  they  were  not  ignorant 
of  the  use  of  the  telescope,  and  even  their 
astrological  researches  led  to  some  important 
progress  in  astronomical  science.  To  them 
are  we  indebted  for  bringing  into   use   our 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  107 

admirable  system  of  numerals ;  and  if,  as  some 
pretend,  they  received  the  first  hint  of  it  in 
India,  they  were  certainly  the  first  to  dissemi- 
nate it  through  Europe. 

During  the  administration  of  Almansor, 
Haroun  Al-Raschid,  and  Mamoun,  grammati- 
cal studies,  poetry,  philosophy,  jurisprudence, 
medicine,  astronomy,  mathematics,  natural  sci- 
ence, and  magic  were  taught  in  their  schools ; 
and  besides  the  schools  at  Bagdad  and  Damas- 
cus, new  ones  were  founded,  and  attained  a 
high  reputation,  at  Basra,  Kufa,  Aleppo,  Bok- 
hara, and  other  large  cities,  while  the  semina- 
ries of  the  Jews  and  Christians  at  Berytus, 
Nisibis,  Antioch,  and  Edessa,  were  not  only 
tolerated,  but  encouraged. 

It  was  in  Spain,  however,  that  the  highest 
development  of  the  Saracenic  intellectual  cul- 
ture took  place,  or,  at  least,  our  knowledge  of 
its  development  there  is  more  full  than  else- 
where. The  Moors,  under  the  aggressive  im- 
pulse of  their  new  faith,  had  crossed  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar,  about  the  commencement 
of  the  eighth  century,  swept  over  the  fertile 


108  HISTOKY  AND 

lands  of  Spain  almost  without  resistance,  and, 
under  the  leadership  of  the  brave  and  bold 
Abd-el-Malek,  pushed  forward  to  subdue 
France  also;  but  their  onward  progress  was 
stayed  by  Charles  Martel,  who,  by  his  great 
victory  over  them  in  a.  n.  732,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Loire,  caused  the  tide  of  invasion  to 
roll  back  upon  itself 

For  nearly  seven  centuries  the  Moslem 
power  continued  to  prevail  in  Spain,  waning 
indeed  and  restricted  in  its  territory  toward 
the  last,  and  almost  always  engaged  in  war 
with  the  Christian  nations  which  claimed 
Spain  as  their  lawful  heritage,  and  their  allies 
in  the  adjacent  nations.  Yet  human  history 
has  hardly  recorded  elsewhere  so  brilliant  a 
career  as  that  of  the  Saracens  in  Spain. 

The  plains,  the  valleys,  and  the  hillsides 
were  covered  with  palaces  and  costly  dwell- 
ings, in  the  light  and  graceful  styles  of  Moor- 
ish architecture.  Poetry  and  the  fine  arts 
flourished ;  the  courts  of  the  Moorish  nion- 
archs  were  the  resort  of  eminent  scholars ; 
and  over  the  whole  land,  schools  and  universi- 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  1Q9. 

ties,  with  rich  endowments,  able  professors, 
and  large  and  valuable  libraries,  had  sprung 
up  under  the  fostering  care  of  the  govern- 
ment. Hakem  II.  (796-822),  Almanzor,  Ab- 
der-Rahman  II.,  and  Ab-der-Rahman  III.  were 
the  noblest  patrons  of  science  among  the 
Moorish  kings.  During  the. reign  of  the  last- 
named  king,  about  940  a.  n.,  there  were  in 
in  existence  seventeen  universities,  the  most 
renowned  of  which  was  Cordova  (which  even 
in  Roman  times  had  been  distinguished  as  a 
seat  of  literature),  and  sixty-six  public  libra- 
ries, of  which  that  at  Cordova  alone  contained 
six  hundred  thousand  volumes.  Notwith- 
standing the  contempt  with  which  the  Koran 
treated  women,  female  education  was  not 
neglected  in.  Spain,  and  many  of  the  most 
eminent  poetical  writers  of  the  nation  were  of 
the  gentler  sex.  All  the  advantages  of  the 
public  seminaries  were  equally  free  to  them, 
and  the  devoirs  paid  by  the  chivalric  knights 
to  the  ladies  of  their  choice  were  as  often  in 
homage  to  their  high  intellectual  endowments 
as  to  the  charms  of  their  beauty  and  virtue. 


110  HISTOEY  AND 

The  universities  of  Toledo,  Salamanca,  and 
Seville,  though  inferior  in  renown  to  Cordova, 
were  yet  celebrated  all  over  Europe ;  and  the 
African  cities  of  Kairwan,  Tunis,  Fessan,  and 
Algiers  could  also  boast  of  their  high-schools. 

Indeed,  whatever  of  civilization  and  educa- 
tion has  penetrated  beyond  the  desert  into 
Negroland  and  the  adjacent  countries,  can  be 
traced  directly  to  Moorish  invasion  and  Mo- 
hammedan learning.  Egypt,  too,  under  the 
sway  of  the  Khalifs,  regained  her  old  renown, 
and  schools  and  colleges  again  testified  to  her 
zeal  for  education. 

The  brilliant  results  of  the  early  ages  of 
Moslem  sway  have  vanished:  the  poets,  phi- 
losophers, mathematicians,  astrologers,  and  al- 
chemists of  the  times  of  the  Abassides  are 
gone,  and  have  left  no  successors  to  fill  their 
places;  and  though,  in  all  the  Mohammedan 
cities,  schools  for  boys  are  still  maintained, 
and  the  higher  studies  are  prosecuted  to  some 
extent,  the  zeal  that  once  animated  the  teach- 
ers, the  profound  learning,  and  the  literary 
and  scientific  attainments  which  made  them 


PEOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION  111 

the  most  accomplished  nation  of  the  world, 
are  passed  away. 

The  intellectual  condition  of  the  Mexicans 
and  Peruvians,  at  the  date  of  their  discovery 
by  Europeans,  has  been  a  theme  of  general 
surprise.  We  find  among  them  a  clumsy, 
hieroglyphical  language,  co-existing  with 
mathematical  attainments  of  a  high  order,  and 
a  general  mental  culture  superior  to  that  of 
most  of  the  nations  of  Europe  two  centuries 
earlier;  the  most  revolting  rites  and  human 
sacrifices,  with  a  refinement  of  manners,  and 
sublimity  in  the  forms  of  worship,  unparalleled 
among  other  idolatrous  nations;  a  stern  and 
strict  system  of  morals,  from  which  even  the 
monarch,  absolute  as  he  was,  could  not  depart 
with  impunity. 

The  fascinating  pages  of  Mr.  Prescott's 
histories  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  have  given  us  a 
most  graphic  picture  of  the  educational  condi- 
tion of  these  countries,  and  from  them  and 
other  sources  less  widely  known  we  are  able 
to  form  a  very  complete  conception  of  it. 

In  Mexico,  the  children  of  both  sexes,  of 


112  HISTORY  AND 

the  higher  and  middle  orders,  were  taught  at 
the  temples,  the  boys  by  the  priests,  the  girls 
by  the  priestesses — for  the  sacerdotal  function 
was  exercised  by  both  sexes.  In  these  insti- 
tutions the  discipline  and  instruction  were 
monastic  ;  committing  to  memory  religious 
chants,  to  be  rehearsed  at  the  festivals,  feeding 
the  sacred  fires,  and  decorating  the  shrines  of 
the  gods  with  flowers  were  their  principal 
duties.  After  a  time  they  were  transferred  to 
a  higher  school,  the  Calmecac^  where  they 
learned  the  historical  traditions  of  the  country, 
the  mysteries  of  hieroglyphics,  the  principles 
of  government,  and  such  branches  of  arithmet- 
ical, astronomical,  and  natural  science  as  the. 
priests  were  able  to  teach. 

The  girls  were  taught  various  feminine 
employments,  and  especially  to  weave  and 
embroider  rich  coverings  for  the  sacred  altars. 
The  moral  discipline  was  rigid  and  severe,  and 
the  government  of  the  schools  was  rather  that 
of  terror  than  love.  For  those  who  contem- 
plated entering  the  priesthood  there  was  a 
still  higher  education,   in  which   an   esoteric 


PROGKESS  OF  EDUCATION,  113 

course  of  instruction  was  given.  On  tteir 
papyrus,  prepared  from  the  leaves  of  the 
maguey  or  American  aloe,  were  inscribed  by 
these  young  neophytes  the  history  of  the 
past,  the  poems  and  the  liturgy  of  the  nation, 
and  the  records  of  current  events,  in  those 
suggestive  hieroglyphics  which  seem  to  have 
been,  to  the  initiated,  but  a  kind  of  stenog- 
raphy, which  implied  far  more  than  was 
written. 

The  books  thus  prepared  were  collected  in 
large  quantities  in  the  larger  cities  of  the 
empire,  and,  but  for  the  ruthless  barbarity  of 
the  conquerors,  would  have  given  us  much 
fuller  information  of  the  history,  habits,  and 
manners  of  the  races  which  had  inhabited 
Mexico  than  we  now  possess.  Of  the  several 
dialects  spoken  in  Mexico,  that  of  Tezcuco 
was  the  most  polished  and  expressive,  and  its 
literature  abounded  in  poetry  and  in  eloquent 
and  effective  prose  composition. 

In  mathematical  science  they  had  made  re- 
markable progress.  Their  adjustment  of  the 
civil  year  to  the  actual  revolution  of  the  earth 


114:  HKTORY  AND 

around  the  sun,  one  of  the  most  difBcult  prob- 
lems of  science,  was  more  perfect  than  that  of 
the  European  astronomers,  varying  from  the 
actual  length  only  two  minutes,  nine  second. 
Their  system  of  chronology  was  simple,  yet 
highly  ingenious,  and  perfect  for  its  purpose. 
They  had  invented  the  sun-dial,  and,  Lord 
Kingsborough  thinks,  from  some  carvings  on 
rocks,  the  telescope.  They  also,  as  Sr.  Gama 
has  demonstrated,  possessed  the  means  of 
settling  the  hours  of  the  day  with  precision, 
the  periods  of  the  solstices  and  equinoxes. 

The  admonitions  of  the  father  and  mother 
to  an  Aztec  maiden,  on  her  coming  to  years  of 
discretion,  as  preserved  by  Sahagun,-  show  a 
tenderness  and  affection,  as  well  as  an  elevated 
tone  of  morals,  which  speaks  well  for  the 
character  of  the  nation. 

The  education  of  the  members  of  the  royal 
family  was  very  thorough,  and,  in  addition  to 
the  branches  usually  taught  in  the  Galmecac^ 
comprehended  the  arts  of  working  in  metals, 
jewelry,  and  feather  mosaic.  Among  the 
most   eminent   of    the   Mexican   princes    and 


PEOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         115 

philosophers  was  Nezahudlcoyotl^  a  prince  of 
pure  character,  great  learning,  and  extraordi- 
nary genius,  whose  perceptions  of  religious 
truth  seem  to  have  been  as  accurate  and 
sublime  as  those  of  Socrates  and  Plato,  and 
whose  patronage  of  learning  is  deserving  of 
record.  His  hymns,  or  religious  poems,  have 
a  lofty  pathos  and  a  pensive  tenderness  hardly 
equalled  by  any  uninspired  writings. 

Among  the  extraordinary  institutions  of 
Mexico,  one  is  deserving  of  notice  in  a  history 
of  education :  the  tribunal  called  the  Council  of 
Music,  but  whose  object  was  the  encourage- 
ment of  science  and  art.  All  works  on  any 
science  must  be  submitted  to  its  censorship, 
before  they  could  be  made  public.  All  the 
productions  of  art,  and  the  nicer  fabrics,  were 
also  subjected  to  its  scrutiny.  The  professors 
in  the  various  branches  of  science  were  obliged 
to  pass  an  examination  before  it  ere  they 
entered  on  their  duties,  and  the  schools  of  the 
country  were  under  its  special  supervision. 
On  stated  days,  historical  compositions  and 
poems   on   moral   or   traditional   topics   were 


116  HISTOKY  AND 

recited  before  it  by  their  authors,  and  prizes 
awarded  to  the  successful  competitors. 

In  Peru  there  had  been  less  intellectual 
progress.  There  was  no  written  language, 
and  the  quipu^  a  fringe  of  cord  about  two 
feet  long,  of  various  colors,  on  which  dates, 
amounts,  and  events  were  specified  by  means 
of  knots,  was  their  only  substitute  for  written 
records.  This  was  used  more  for  arithmetical 
purposes,  and  as  a  system  of  mnemonicsj  than 
for  any  other  purpose. 

Education  was  withheld  from  the  masses  by 
royal  injunction.  Only  the  children  of  the 
Incas,  and  their  descendants,  could  receive 
instruction.  These,  who  formed  the  nobility 
of  the  nation,  and  were  very  numerous,  were 
placed  under  the  care  of  the  Amantas^  or  wise 
men,  who  were  the  sole  teachers  of  youth. 
The  children  were  instructed  in  their  national 
history,  in  the  art  of  government,  and  in  the 
peculiar  rites  of  their  religion.  They  also 
received  some  instruction  in  rhetoric,  the  art 
of  elocution,  the  elements  of  arithmetic,  and 
the  understanding  of  the  quipus. 


PKOGKESS  OF  EDUCATION.         117 

The  ballads  of  the  haravecs^  or  national 
poets,  which  were  mostly  of  an  historical  char- 
acter, were  also  committed  to  memory  by  the 
youth,  and  chanted  at  the  royal  festivals.  The 
government  maintained  theatrical  exhibitions, 
in  which  both  tragedies  and  comedies  were 
performed;  being,  in  this  respect,  in  advance 
of  the  Mexicans,  who  had  gone  no  further 
than  pantomime.  In  astronomical  knowledge 
they  were  inferior  to  the  Aztecs,  not  being 
able  to  adjust  so  accurately  the  variation 
between  the  lunar  and  solar  year.  They  had, 
however,  learned  to  take  azimuth  observations, 
and  had  ascertained,  very  correctly,  the  times 
of  the  solstices  and  the  period  of  the  equi- 
noxes. They  knew  some  of  the  planets,  but 
did  not,  like  the  Mexicans,  understand  the 
causes  of  eclipses. 

In  agricultural  science  they  were  far  in  ad- 
vance of  any  other  American  race ;  with  tKe 
methods  of  irrigation,  draining,  manuring, 
terracing  steep  hillsides,  and  the  rotation  of 
crops,  they  were  familiar.  They  had  made 
use  of  guano  as  a  manure  for  centuries  before 


118  HISTORY  AND 

the  discovery  of  this  continent,  and  along  the 
sea-coast  used  the  sardines,  which  were  very 
abundant,  for  enriching  their  lands,  in  the 
same  way  that  the  menhaden  or  white-fish  is 
used  by  our  farmers  on  the  seaboard.  Their 
plow  was  a  rude  affair,  it  is  true;  but  they 
managed  to  stir  the  soil  more  deeply  with  it, 
than  their  European  successors  did  with  an 
imported  implement.  They  were  also  accom- 
plished road-builders,  and  the  great  highway 
of  the  Incas  from  Quito  to  Cuzco,  even  in  its 
present  ruined  state,  exhibits  an  amount  of 
engineering  ability  which  would  have  done  no 
discredit  to  a  highly  civilized  nation. 


In  this  brief  sketch  of  the  educational  con- 
dition of  the  nations  unaffected  by  Christian- 
ity, we  can  not  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the 
following  facts :  that  education  was  universally 
considered  as  the  privilege  or  perquisite  of 
the  higher  classes  alone ;  that  it  was  generally 
regarded  as  the  affair  of  the  State,  and  its 
object  was  the  preparation  of  the  youth  for  a 


PKOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  119 

military,  political,  or  priestly  career ;  that  the 
masses  were  purposely  kept  in  the  most  abject 
ignorance,  as  thereby  they  were  more  readily 
controlled  by  the  intelligent  few ;  that  in  most 
countries  the  privilege  of  education  was  de- 
nied to  the  female  sex,  except  in  the  case  of 
those  who  were  unchaste;  and  that  the  mo- 
tives of  religion,  morality,  or  philanthropy 
had  no  influence  in  the  promotion  of  intel- 
lectual culture.  Let  us  now  turn  our  attention 
to  the  character  and  progress  of  education 
when  influenced  and  controlled  by  a  new 
motive-power,  Christianity. 


CHAPTEK  IX. 

Education  since  the  Christian  era.— The  character  and  influence 
of  the  teachings  of  Christ  and  of  his  apostles. — The  influence  of 
Christianity  in  modifying  the  family  relation  and  the  social  and 
intellectual  position  of  woman. — Testimony  of  Libanius. — Early 
Christian  education  mainly  domestic. — School  at  Alexandria. — Pan- 
taenus. — Origen. — Schools  at  Cesarea. — At  Antioch,  Edessa,  Eome, 
Carthage,  &c. — The  schools  for  Catechumens  merely  of  a  religious 
character. 

We  have  already  seen  how  powerful  was 
the  influence  exerted  on  the  education  of 
their  several  nations  by  Con-fut-see,  Zartusht, 
Lycurgus,  Pythagoras,  Socrates,  Plato,  Aris- 
totle, and  Mohammed  ;  yet  none  of  these 
were  capable  of  producing  a  tithe,  or  even  a 
hundredth  part,  of  the  change  in  the  con- 
trolling motives  of  men  and  nations  which  was 
the  result  of  the  teachings  of  the  Founder  of 
Christianity ;  there  were  radical  differences  in 
the  character  of  their  instruction  and  his: 
they  dealt  only  with  the  words  and  outward 
conduct  of  their  disciples  ;  he,  with  the 
thoughts  and  intents  of  the  heart ;  they  recom- 


122  HISTORY  AND 

mended  virtue  from  considerations  of  policy, 
^     and  personal  comfort  and  advantage ;  lie,  as  a 
natural   manifestation   of  a   heart   filled  with 
^ove   to    God   and   to    our   fellow-men:    they 
^      withheld  knowledge  from  the  poor,  the  lowly, 
the  abject ;  he  recognized  it  as  the  birthright 
of  every  son  and  daughter  of  Adam :  they,  for 
the  most  part,  excluded  woman  from  educa- 
^    tion,  and  from  the  social  position  which  she 
was   qualified   by  her  Creator  to  adorn;    he 
honored  woman  in  all  the  relations  of  life,  and 
opened  wide  the  gates  of  instruction  to  her: 
they   recommended   no    measures   of    philan- 
thropic relief  to  the  sick,  the  suffering,   the 
infirm,   or  the  enslaved ;    while  he  regarded 
the  comfort,  solace,  and  relief  of  these  as  a 
part  of  his  special  mission. 

With  principles  differing  so  widely  from 
those  of  all  previous  teachers  and  philosophers, 
it  can  not  occasion  surprise  that  the  results  of 
the  predominance  of  his  faith  should  have 
'  been  such  as  to  revolutionize  all  former  sys- 
tems of  education ;  we  can  only  wonder  that 
the  perversity,   ignorance,   and  willfulness  of 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  123 

man  have,  to  such  an  extent,  prevented  their 
complete  development. 

During  the  threejnears  of  his  public  minis-  ) 
trations,  Jesus  was  almost  incessantly  engaged 
in  giving  instruction.     To  the  crowds  which 
followed  his  footsteps  he  taught  in  parables,  / 
usually  drawn  from  nature  or  from  the  cus-    \ 
toms  and  practices  of  the  Jewish  family— a  [ 
method  previously  practiced  by  the  Hebrew 
prophets,  and  to  some  extent  by  the  pagan 
philosophers. 

To  his  more  immediate  and  intimate  disciO 
pies  these  were  explained  and  illustrated  with.  ^ 
more  completeness  than  in  his  public  dis- 
courses; to  them,  also,  he  more  fully  devel- 
oped his  plans,  his  purposes,  and  his  doctrines ; 
yet  there  was,  in  this  special  teaching,  nothing 
analogous  to  the  esoteric  system  of  the  Greek, 
Egyptian,  and  Hindoo  philosophers  and 
priests,  for  these  instructions  were  only  in- 
tended to  qualify  them  to  declare,  with  more 
'clearness  and  accuracy,  the  truths  which  he 
had  come  to  establish. 

The  high  and  sacred   character  which  he 


124  HISTORY  AND 

affixed  to  the  marriage  relation,  the  prohibi- 
tion of  polygamy,  and  of  divorce  except  for  a 
single  cause,  and  the  elevation  of  the  social 
position  of  woman,  taught  both  by  precept 
and  example ;  and  the  tenderness  and  love 
which  he  manifested  for  children,  so  different 
from  the  sternness  of  the  Hebrew  parents, 
and  so  incompatible  with  the  gross  and  cruel 
selfishness  which  had  led  pagan  philosophers 
to  advise,  and  pagan  parents  to  practice,  the 
destruction  of  the  feeble  and  infirm  among 
their  children — all  demonstrated  how  radical 
a  change  of  principle,  in  the  position  of  woman 
and  the  education  of  children,  he  was  to  in- 
troduce. 

Of  his  disciples  and  apostles,  Luke  and  Pautj 
were  men  of  superior  education ;  and  while  the 
one  was  the  chronicler  of  the  sayings  and 
doings  of  his  divine  Master  and  of  the  early 
Church, — the  other,  by  public  disputation,  by 
written  argument,  by  oral  instruction,  and  by 
his  admirable  letters,  convinced  his  opponents, 
and  taught  the  churches  he  had  planted.  lu 
his  writings,  and  those  of  the  other  apostles, 


PEOGKESS  OF  EDUCATION.         125 

we  find  frequent  precepts  on  the  education 
and  training  of  children,  designed  to  impress 
upon  parents  the  modification,  in  their  rela- 
tions to  their  children,  which  their  profession 
of  Christianity  had  effected,  and  to  enforce 
upon  the  young  the  duty  of  filial  obedience 
from  higher  motives  than  those  of  fear. 

The  parental  rule,  under  the  Hebrew,  the 
Greek,  and  the  Roman  laws,  was  one  of 
extreme  severity;  the  parent  possessed  the 
power  even  of  putting  his  child  to  death,  and 
fear,  not  love,  was  the  predominant  motive  of 
action  on  the  part  of  the  child.  The  apostles 
sought  to  substitute  the  principle  of  mutual 
love,  and  the  spirit  of  Christian  tenderness 
and  obedience,  for  this  severity  and  fear,  and 
they  were  successful. 

In  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era, 
domestic  education  reached  a  higher  point,  in 
the  families  of  the  Christians,  than  it  had  ever 
previously  attained.  The  children  were  not, 
perhaps,  so  conversant  with  Greek  literature 
as  some  of  their  heathen  neighbors,  but  their 
modesty,  their  courteous  manners,  their  rever- 


126  HISTORY  AND 

ence  for  their  parents,  their  knowledge  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  their  general  intelligence  called 
forth  the  unwilling  commendation  of  their 
enemies. 

The  purity  and  chastity,  even  in  thought 
and  conversation,  of  the  Christian  maidens, 
formed  so  marked  a  contrast  with  the  general 
license  indulged  by  the  daughters  of  the 
pagans,  that  it  elicited  the  encomiums  even  of 
the  bitterest  pagan  writers.  The  high  social 
position  accorded  to  woman  in  the  Christian 
system,  had  operated  so  favorably  in  drawing 
out  the  best  points  in  her  character,  that  the 
Christian  mothers  of  the  first  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era  had  no  occasion  to  fear  a  com- 
parison with  the  noble  women  of  the  heroic 
days  of  the  Roman  republic.  The  names  of 
Anthusa,  the  mother  of  Chrysostom,  of  Nonna, 
the  mother  of  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  of 
Monica,  the  mother  of  Augustine,  will  occur 
to  many  of  our  readers  as  justifying  the  excla- 
mation of  their  bitter  enemy,  Libanius,  ''What 
wonderful  women  are  these,  of  the  Christian 
faith!" 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  127 

The  first  school  of  high  grade  exclusively 
under  Christian  control,  was  that  of  the  Cate- 
chists  at  Alexandria,  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  Pantaenus,  a.  d.  181,  and  continued,  after 
his  death,  by  Clement,  who,  in  his  turn,  was 
succeeded,  a.  d.  213,  by  Origen,  and  he  by 
Heraclas.  The  object  of  this  school  was  to 
qualify  young  men  to  become  preachers ;  and 
besides  the  instruction  in  theology,  mathe- 
matics, logic,  rhetoric,  natural  philosophy, 
metaphysics,  ethics,  and  astronomy  were  also 
taught.  It  continued  in  existence  until  about 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  and  perhaps 
even  later. 

As,  however,  it  was  impossible  for  all,  or 
even  the  greater  part,  of  those  who  entered 
the  ministry  to  resort  to  Alexandria  for  in- 
struction, it  was  customary  with  the  more 
highly  educated  pastors  and  bishops  to  receive 
pupils  into  their  own  families,  and  instruct 
them  in  the  profane  sciences  as  well  as  in 
theology.  The  renown  of  the  school  at  Alex- 
andria was  the  more  extraordinary  from  the 
fact  that  it  was  established  at  the  period  when 


128  HISTORY  AND 

the  pagan  school  of  Alexandria,  founded  by 
Ptolemy  Soter,  and  sustained  and  endowed  by 
his  successors  and  the  Roman  emperors,  was 
in  the  zenith  of  its  reputation ;  having  a  noble 
library  (the  Museum),  and  a  corps  of  the  most 
renowned  philosophers  of  that  period  among 
its  professors.  To  its  teachings  many  of  the 
most  eminent  of  the  Christian  preachers  were 
indebted  for  their  education. 

Origen,  whom  we  have  named  as  one  of  the 
teachers  of  the  school  of  Catechists,  and  who 
was,  perhaps,  the  most  eminent  Christian 
scholar  of  his  time,  was  banished  from  Alex- 
andria in  A.  D.  231,  and  soon  after  established 
a  similar  school  at  Cesarea  in  Palestine,  which 
attained  to  considerable  distinction.  Schools 
of  the  same  character  were  established,  a  little 
later,  at  Antioch  and  at  Edessa. 

In  the  west.  Christian  schools  were  founded, 
as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, in  Rome,  Carthage,  Milan,  Treves,  Autun, 
Marseilles,  and  Lyons.  Some  writers  have 
confounded  with  these  the  schools  for  Cate- 
chumens, which  were  held  everywhere,   and 


PEOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         129 

which  were  intended  only  to  instruct  the 
young  and  the  ignorant  in  the  elementary 
principles  of  Christian  doctrine;  but  the  two 
had  no  connection. 

6« 


CHAPTER   X. 

Period  of  Constantine  and  his  successors. — The  "Western  Empire 
given  over  to  barbarism. — Corruption  of  the  Latin  language. — Ca- 
PELLA. — Analysis  of  his  Satyricon. — Cassiodorus. — Worthlessness 
of  his  text-books. — Bishop  Isidore  of  Seville. — Contents  of  his 
Origines, — This  regarded  as  the  most  learned  book  of  the  dark  ages. 
— The  cathedral  and  monastic  schools. — Meagerness  of  instruction 
in  them. — Scarcity  of  parchment  and  papyrus. — Palimpsests. 

The  toleration  of  Christianity  (a.  d.  311), 
and  its  subsequent  establishment  as  the  re- 
ligion of  the  State  under  Constantine,  naturally- 
led  to  the  organization  of  a  greater  number  of 
schools,  and  a  larger  attendance  upon  those 
already  established;  but  the  troublous  times 
which  followed  in  the  Western  Empire,  and 
the  constant  immigration  of  the  barbaric  races 
into  Italy  for  two  centuries,  not. only  operated 
as  a  check  upon  literature  and  intellectual 
progress,  but  greatly  debased  and  modified 
the  Latin  language,  so  that  the  Latin  of  the 
Augustan  age  was  hardly  understood  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Italy  in  the  sixth  century. 


132  HISTORY  AND 

In  the  Eastern  Empire  a  higher  civilization 
and  a  more  generous  culture  prevailed,  for  a 
time ;  and  Constantinople  and  the  other  cities 
of  the  East  had  their  schools  and  literature, 
and  cultivated  science  and  the  arts,  after 
ignorance  and  barbarism  had  overspread  the 
West. 

It  will  aid  us  to  form  some  estimate  of  the 
education  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  in 
the  Western  Empire,  and  indeed  throughout 
Europe,  if  we  examine,  briefly,  the  text-books 
in  general  use  at  that  period.  The  course  of 
instruction  in  the  schools  was  divided  into  the 
Trivium,  which  embraced  grammar,  logic  or 
dialectics,  and  rhetoric;  and  the  Quadrivium, 
which  included  arithmetic,  geometry,  astron- 
omy, and  music. 

The  usual,  and  indeed  the  almost  universal, 
text-book  in  all  these  studies,  for  nearly  a 
thousand  years,  was  the  Satira  or  Satyricon  of 
Marcianus  Mineus  Felix  Capella,  an  encyclo- 
pedia, in  nine  books,  of  these  sciences,  in 
which  prose  and  poetry  alternated  about 
equally.     This  singular  work,  which  has  come 


PHOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         133 

down  to  our  own  times^  was  written  about 
A.  D.  470.  The  first  two  books  are  entitled 
^''De  Nuptiis  Philologioe  et  Mercuri%'''^  and  give, 
with  copious  verbiage,  a  narrative  of  the  ad- 
ventures of  Mercury  in  search  of  a  spouse,  his 
rejection  by  Sophia  (wisdom)  and  Psyche  (the 
soul),  and  his  final  wooing  of  Philologia ;  the 
subsequent  books  introduce,  in  turn,  the  chil- 
dren of  this  redoubtable  pair,  in  character, 
beginning  with  Grammar,  armed  with  the 
needful  implements  of  her  art,  and  recounting 
her  history  and  achievements ;  she  is  followed, 
successively,  by  Dialectics,  Rhetoric,  Geometry, 
Arithmetic,  Astronomy,  and  Music,  each  of 
whom  declares  her  attainments,  in  alternate 
verse  and  prose. 

The  meagerness  of  the  instruction  in  these 
studies  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the 
Arithmetic  occupies  but  a  brief  space,  and 
gives  only  the  digits  and  their  fractions,  with- 
out any  valuable  instruction  even  in  the 
elementary  rules.  It  is  mainly  occupied  with 
discussions  concerning  the  virtues  of  certain 
numbers.     The  Grammar  is  equally  brief,  and 


134  HISTORY  AND 

dwells  principally  upon  the  names  and  powers 
of  the  letters.  The  Geometry  is  very  little 
better,  though  Euclid's  work  was  not  rare. 
The  other  books,  except  that  on  dialectics, 
are  nearly  valueless.  Aristotle  was  the  basis 
of  all  dialectic  instruction,  though  his  works 
were  not  available  in  Latin  till  a  few  years 
later. 

The  only  formidable  rivals  of  Capella,  in 
the  publication  of  these  encyclopedic  text- 
books, were  Cassiodorus  and  Isidore,  who 
flourished  in  the  sixth  century.  Their  works 
are  even  more  meager  in  instruction  than 
that  of  Capella, — the  Arithmetic  of  Cassiodo- 
rus occupying  but  two  folio  pages,  and  not 
containing  a  word  even  of  the  elementary 
rules  of  the  science.  His  Geometry  occupies 
about  the  same  space,  and  contains  only  a  few 
axioms.  The  Grammar  and  Rhetoric  are  of 
about  equal  value.  Music  then,  as  later,  was 
confined  mostly  to  church  chanting ;  and  As- 
tronomy was  only  a  brief  epitome  of  the 
system  of  Ptolemy,  and  did  not  even  explain 
the  cause  of  eclipses.     Capella,  indeed,  like 


PROGRESS  Ot   EDUCATION.         135 

some  of  his  predecessors,  seems  to  have  had 
some  dim  idea  of  the  possibility  that  the  earth 
revolved  around  the  sun,  but  only  sufficient  to 
suggest  it  vaguely.  And  these  books  were 
the  text-books  for  the  next  thousand  years! 
and  even  in  these,  few  went  beyond  the 
Trivium, 

One  name  illumines  the  fast-gathering  dark- 
ness of  the  period — -Boethicjs  (g'.  t;.),  born 
455,  or,  as  some  say,  470  a.  d.,  and  executed, 
by  the  order  of  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostro- 
goths, 526.  Boethius  was  the  last  link  which 
connected  the  learning  and  accomplishments 
of  the  Augustan  age  with  the  darkness  of  the 
middle  ages.  Learned  in  all  the  literature  of 
Greece  and  Rome,  a  writer  worthy  of  the 
golden  age  of  Rome,  an  inventor  and  discov- 
erer in  astronomical  and  mathematical  science, 
and  an  ardent  friend  and  patron  of  education, 
he  had  fallen  upon  evil  times.  Though  for 
many  years  a  favorite  of  the  illiterate  but 
energetic  Theodoric,  who  at  first  seemed  to 
take  pleasure  in  furthering  his  efforts  for  the 
diffusion  of  education,  he  finally  fell  under  his 


136  HISTOEY  AND 

displeasure,  in  part  from  his  efforts  to  instruct 
the  countrymen  of  the  monarch,  the  Ostro- 
goths, whose  ignorance  and  contempt  of  edu- 
cation gratified  their  king.  Boethius  trans- 
lated several  of  Aristotle's  and  Plato's  works, 
and  himself  wrote  treatises  on  arithmetic, 
rhetoric,  music,  geometry,  and  the  quadrature 
of  the  circle.  He  also  translated  the  works  of 
Euclid,  Archimedes,  and  Ptolemaeus  of  Alex- 
andria. But  his  works  were  too  learned  for 
the  age  in  which  he  lived,  and  seem  never  to 
have  come  into  very  general  use.  The  intel- 
lectual nadir  of  the  world  was  approaching; 
in  the  seventh  century  ignorance  sounded  its 
lowest  depths. 

Isidore,  bishop  of  Seville  (born  570,  died 
636),  is  almost  the  only  man  of  this  period  of 
darkness,  who  could  lay  claim  to  any  consider- 
able scholarship,  and  his  attainments  in  science 
would  be  regarded  as  exceedingly  meager  in 
our  times ;  yet  he  was,  at  that  day,  considered 
a  prodigy  of  learning.*     It  is  recorded,  to  his 

*  The  fathers  of  the  8th  Conncil  of  Toledo,  decreed  him  publicly  the 
most  ful^me  eulogies,  and  spoke  of  him  in  their  capitukries  in-^he 


PKUCiKESS  OF  EDUCATION.  137 

honor,  that  he  attempted  to  diiFuse  education 
among  his  clergy,  and  established  a  school  at 
Seville.  He  also  prepared  an  encyclopedia, 
near  the  close  of  his  life,  in  which  he  attempted 
to  give  to  the  world  a  compendium  of  the 
knowledge  which  appeared  so  vast  to  his 
cotemporaries. 

This  work,  entitled  Origines^  seu  Etymologi- 
arum  lihri^  was  in  twenty  books.  The  first 
three  were  devoted  to  the  seven  liberal  arts 
(the  trivium  and  quadrivium)^  and  may  be 
supposed  to  furnish  a  resume  of  his  knowledge 
in  regard  to  them;  but  they  do  not  contain 
one-tenth  of  the  information  to  be  found  in 
our  most  elemetary  school-books.  Under  the 
head  of  Arithmetic,  for  instance,  he  only  ex- 
plains that  arithmetic  and  the  names  of  num- 
bers were  derived  from  the  Greek,  speaks  of 
their  usefulness,  especially  in  enabling  us  to 
understand  the  mystic  sense  of  some  passages 


following  terms :  Doctor'  egregius^  EccUsicB  Caiholicoi  novmimum  deeuSj 
prmcedentibus  oetate postremus^  doctrince  comparatione  non  injimus,  atgne^ 
et  quod  majus  est.  Jam  smculormn  finiioram  doctissimus,  cum  reverentia 
nomm^ndus,  Isldorus.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine  what  more  they  could 
have  said  in  the  way  of  eulogy. 


138  HISTORY  AND 

of  Scripture,  and  divides  them  into  even  and 
odd  numbers ;  and  then  proceeds  to  speak  of 
geometry.  In  grammar,  he  has  evidently  no 
knowledge  of  syntax  and  very  little  of  etymol- 
ogy; he  confounds  rhetoric  with  dialectics, 
and  considers  astrology  a  valuable  department 
of  astronomical  knowledge.  The  remaining 
books  of  the  Origines  are  occupied  with  such 
topics  as  these:  Medicine,  Law,  the  Scrips 
tures,  God,  an  account  of  heretics  and  their 
opinions.  Languages,  of  which  he  specifies 
three  principal  ones — Hebrew,  Greek,  and 
Latin;  a  Latin  dictionary,  with  very  fanciful 
derivations;  Man,  and  the  parts  of  the  body ; 
Animals;  the  World,  and  its  visible  phenom- 
ena; Geography,  Great  Cities,  Precious  Stones, 
Agriculture ;  War,  the  Drama,  &c. ;  miscella- 
neous subjects,  and  Food. 

On  most  of  these  topics  the  ideas  enunciated 
are  crude,  fanciful,  often  indeed  absurd.  Yet, 
if  we  compare  the  attainments  necessary  for 
the  preparation  of  such  a  work  with  those 
possessed  by  the  kings,  nobles,  and  even  the 
bishops  and  inferior  clergy  of  his  time,  we  can 


FKOGRESS   OF  EDUCATION.  139 

readily  understand  ^Yhy  lie  should  have  had  so 
exalted  a  reputation  for  learning. 

Of  the  kings  then  reigning  in  Europe,  very 
few  were  able  to  read,  and  still  fewer  to 
write ;  their  courtiers  were,  of  course,  equally 
ignorant;  ability  to  read  and  write  was  not 
considered,  by  any  means,  indispensable  even 
to  the  bishops,  much  less  to  the  inferior 
clergy.  The  monasteries  generally  contained 
libraries,  and  some  of  the  monks  could  usually 
write  well  enough  to  transcribe  such  copies  of 
the  Scriptures  or  liturgy  as  were  needed ;  but 
this  was  done  in  so  imperfect  and  slovenly  a 
manner  that  their  manuscripts  were  full  of 
errors,  and  a  century  or  two  later  required  the 
most  strenuous  efforts  for  their  correction. 

Schools  were  attached  to  the  cathedrals  and 
the  monasteries,  and  had  been,  in  many  cases, 
since  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century ;  but 
the  children  were,  at  this  period,  seldom  taught 
either  to  read  or  write.  The  ability  to  repeat 
and  chant  the  Credo^  the  Pater-noster^  the  Ave 
Maria^  and  a  few  Latin  hymns,  without  any 
idea  of  their  signification,  was  the  extent  of 


140  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION. 

their  instruction.  The  importation  of  papyrus 
from  Egypt  had  ceased ;  cotton  and  linen 
paper  were  yet  unknown  in  Europe,  and 
parchment  was  costly  and  difficult  of  prepara- 
tion. The  great  libraries  of  Alexandria,  of 
Rome,  and  of  Constantinople  had  perished 
by  fire  ;  and  the  illiterate  monks  knew  just 
enough  to  efface  the  writing  from  the  few 
valuable  parchments  in  their  libraries,  and 
cover  them  anew  with  silly  legends,  the 
product  of  brains  muddled  with  intoxicating 
liquors.  The  chemical  skill  of  modern  times 
has  enabled  us  to  discharge  the  ink  from 
many  of  these  palimpsests^  and  restore  the 
classical  works  so  ruthlessly  destroyed. 


CHAPTEK    XI. 

Education  in  the  British  Isles. — Charlemagne,  the  most  efficient 
friend  of  education  at  this  period. — His  invitation  to  Alcuin. — His 
Capitularies. — Services  of  Alcuin  in  promoting  education. — Paul 
the  Deacon,  Peter  of  Pisa,  Clement  the  Hibernian,  and  Eaban 
Maur  also  rendered  valuable  service. — Alfred  the  Great,  the  edu- 
cational reformer  of  Britain. — Saracen  learning  at  this  period. 
— Eminent  Jewish  scholars  of  the  time. 

The  British  isles  were  not,  at  this  period, 
reduced  to  quite  so  low  a  condition  of  igno- 
rance as  the  continental  countries.  Education 
was  not,  indeed,  diffused  generally  among  the 
people,  but  the  cloistral  schools  at  York,  Can- 
terbury, Oxford,  Cambridge,  Dublin,  and  per- 
haps some  other  points,  were  decidedly  in 
advance  of  any  of  those  on  the  continent. 
St.  Patrick,  Colomba,  Willebrod,  Aelbert,  John 
of  Beverley,  bishop  of  Hagulstad, — a  man  of 
learning  for  his  times,  and  so  zealously  dis- 
posed in  favor  of  education  that  he  even 
attempted  the  instruction  of  a  deaf  mute, — 
Ceolfric,    abbot    of    the .  cloistral    school    at 


14:2  HISTORY  AND 

Wearmouth,  and  the  Venerable  Bede,  the  early 
ecclesiastical  historian  of  England, — all  flour- 
ished in  this  and  the  preceding  century,  as 
did  also  St.  Boniface,  also  a  native  of  England, 
whose  labors  and  martyrdom,  in  the  attempt 
to  promote  the  education,  civilization,  and 
Christianization  of  the  rude  Frisians,  are  de- 
serving of  commemoration. 

The  first  movement,  however,  looking  to- 
ward any  material  progress  in  education, 
occurred  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Charlemagne  (a.  d.  768-814).  Though  him- 
self, in  the  early  part  of  his  career,  illiterate 
and  unable  to  Avrite,  this  energetic  prince 
possessed  wisdom  enough  to  appreciate  the 
advantages  of  education  to  his  people,  and  its 
necessity  for  those  who  administered  either 
civil  or  ecclesiastical  power.  In  his  tour 
through  Italy,  about  a.  n.  780,  he  met  with 
several  men  of  considerable  learning,  and  was 
so  much  impressed  with  the  importance  of 
intellectual  improvement  that  he  urged  the 
most  eminent  of  them,  Alcuin,  an  Anglo- 
Saxon,   born    iji    Brittany,    but   educated    at 


PKOGKESS  OF  EDUCATION.  143 

York^  England,  and  at  tliat  time  at  the  head 
of  a  cloistral  school  established  by  the  arch- 
l)isliop  of  York,  to  come  to  his  court  and  take 
up  his  residence  there. 

Alcuin  at  first  declined,  but,  after  repeated 
solicitation,  acceded  to  his  request,  and,  in 
782,  became  a  member  of  the  emperor's 
household.  So  eager  was  Charlemagne  for 
learning,  that  he  placed  himself  and  all  the 
members  of  his  family  under  the  instruction 
of  Alcuin,  who  taught  the  trivium  and 
quadrivium  to  the  princes,  nobles,  and  cour- 
tiers of  the  realm ;  thus  establishing,  or  at 
least  reviving,  in  an  improved  form,  the  aulic 
or  palatine  school  of  the  Merovingian  kings. 
Alcuin  was  probably  the  most  learned  man  of 
his  time ;  but  though  his  attainments  at  a  later 
period  would  not  have  been  deemed  remarka- 
ble, he  is  deserving  of  honor  for  the  efforts  to 
which  he  prompted  his  imperial  pupil  for  the 
promotion  of  education  throughout  his  empire. 
Through  his  influence  the  cathedral  schools 
were  reopened,  and  their  course  of  study 
enlarged  and  elevated  ;  the  manuscripts  of  the 


144  HISTOEY  AND 

old  Roman  literature  brought  to  light,  cor- 
rected, and  for  the  first  time  punctuated,  and, 
to  some  extent,  restored  as  text-books  in  the 
schools,  from  which  they  had  been  banished 
on  theological  grounds. 

In  two  Capitularies^  issued  787  and  788, 
addressed  by  Charlemagne  to  the  religious 
preachers  under  his  government,  and  to  Ban- 
gulf,  a  celebrated  abbe,  the  head  of  a  religious 
order,    and    his    congregations,    the    emperor 

,  insists  on  a  higher  education  for  the  priest- 
hood, the  multiplication  of  correct  copies  of 
the  Scriptures  and  of  the  Latin  classics,  and 
the  teaching  of  these  and  of  the  liberal  arts, 

.  by  the  priests  and  monks,  to  the  pupils  of  the 
schools.  In  the  administration  of  his  school  of 
the  palace  and  his  other  educational  enterprises, 
Charlemagne  was  also  aided  by  Paul  the  Lom- 
bard Deacon,  Clement  the  Hibernian,  and  Peter 
of  Pisa,  all  of  them  men  eminent,  in  that  dark 
period,  for  learning  and  intellectual  ability. 

Alcuin  withdrew  from  the  court,  on  account 
of  age  and  infirmity,  in  796,  but  established 

f   an  excellent  school  at  his  abbey  of  St.  Martin 


PEOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  145 

I  of  Tours,  where  he  died  in  804.  Several  of 
I  his  pupils  also  became  distinguished  as  teach- 
■  ers,  the  most  eminent  of  whom,  Raban  Maur, 
succeeded  him  in  the  Palatine  school ;  and 
had  the  clergy  seconded  the  efforts  of  Alcuin 
and  Charlemagne  for  the  general  promotion  of 
education,  the  intellectual  dawn  need  not  have 
been  postponed  for  seven  centuries ;  but  exer- 
tion and  study  were  not  suited  to  their  dispo- 
sitions, and  on  the  death  of  Charlemagne  there 
was  a  gradual  relapse,  which,  despite  the 
efforts  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire  and  Charles  the 
Bald,  well-nigh  obliterated  the  progress  which 
had  been  made  during  his  administration. 

This  much,  however,  had  been  gained :  the 
cathedral  and  conventual  schools,  which,  if 
not  broken  up  by  the  civil  wars  which  pre- 
ceded his  reign,  had,  at  least,  been  rendered 
nearly  worthless,  were  restored,  and  the  char- 
acter of  their  teachings  elevated ;  the  German 
language  had  been  recognized  as  a  medium 
for  instruction,  and  the  Scriptures,  as  well  as 
some  text-books,  translated  into  it ;  and  there 
were  scattered  through  the  vast  domains  of 


146  HISTORY  AND 

the  emperor  a  few  learned  men  (learned  i.  e. 
for  the  time),  who  would  seek  the  promotion 
of  science  and  the  improvement  of  education. 

The  next  remarkable  patron  of  education 
Was  Alfred  the  Great,  of  England  (a.  n.  849- 
900).  The  civil  disorders  which  preceded  his 
reign  and  which  occupied  the  earlier  portions 
of  it,  the  repeated  and  destructive  invasions 
of  the  Danes,  and  the  consequent  misery  and 
poverty  of  the  people,  the  destruction  of  the 
convents  and  cloistral  schools  and  the  valuable 
libraries  which  they  contained,  had  plunged 
the  inhabitants  of  England  into  a  depth  of 
ignorance  and  wretchedness  of  which  they 
had  no  previous  experience. 

It  was  under  circumstances  thus  discour- 
aging, and  while  himself  involved  in  almost 
interminable  wars,  that  Alfred  turned  his 
attention  to  the  intellectual  improvement  of 
his  people.  With  the  exception  of  a  portion 
of  Bishop  Isidore's  works  and  the  gospel  of 
,  St.  John,  which  had  previously  been  translated 
into  Anglo-Saxon  by  the  Venerable  Bede, 
there   seem  to  have   been   no   books   in   the 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  147 

vulgar  tongue;  and  Alfred,  rightly  judging 
that  the  cultivation  of  the  spoken  language  of 
a  people  was  one  of  the  first  steps  toward 
their  mental  culture,  translated  with  his  own 
hands,  amid  his  other  cares,  the  works  of 
Bede,  Orosius,  and  the  Consolations  of  Philos- 
ophy of  Boethius,  and  induced  others  to 
undertake  the  translation  of  other  works.  To 
teach  the  young  to  read  these  books,  and  also 
some  of  those  in  the  Latin,  was  his  next  effort ; 
and,  under  his  fostering  care,  the  monastic 
schools  were  revived,  endowments  were  be- 
stowed upon  them,  and  the  strongest  induce- 
ments he  could  ofier  were  set  before  the  most 
eminent  scholars  of  the  time  to  take  charge  of 
them. 

Among  those  who  accepted  his  invitation, 
and  aided  according  to  their  ability,  were 
Grimbald,  a  French  monk,  John,  surnamed 
the  Saxon,  St.  Neoth,  Asser,  subsequently  his 
biographer,  Plegmond,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
y  bury,  Dunwulf,  afterwards  bishop  of  Worces- 
ter, Gerbert,  bishop  of  Chester,  Wulfsig,  and 
Athelstan,  bishop  of  London;   and,   most  re- 


148  HISTORY  AND 

nowned  of  them  all,  John  Scotus,  called 
Erigena,  to  whom  some  writers  attribute  the 
origin  of  the  scholastic  philosophy.  Oxford 
was,  during  Alfred's  reign,  and  had  been, 
indeed,  for  two  or  three  centuries,  renowned 
for  its  schools,  connected,  for  the  most  part, 
with  the  monasteries. 

Under  the  genial  influence  which  Alfred 
exerted  in  behalf  of  education,  these  schools 
were  a  popular  resort  for  scholars ;  and  hence 
some  writers  have  attributed  to  him,  but  with- 
out any  just  authority,  the  establishment  of  the 
University  of  Oxford, — an  event  which,  so  far 
as  its  formal  or  public  recognition  was  con- 
cerned, did  not  take  place  till  nearly  three 
centuries  later. 

In  England,  however,  as  in  France,  the 
impulse  given  to  education  by  its  liberal  and 
enlightened  monarch,  did  not  long  survive  his 
death,  and  the  tenth  century  is  usually  reck- 
oned, by  English  writers,  the  darkest  period 
of  its  history.  It  can  hardly  be  said,  how- 
ever, that  the  darkness  was  as  profound  over 
the  whole  of  Europe  as  in  the  seventh  century. 


PKOGEESS  OF  EDUCATION.  149 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  Saracen 
conquests  in  Sicily  and  Spain,  and  of  their 
cultivation  of  science  and  literature  at  a 
period  when  ignorance  had  overspread  the 
rest  of  Europe.  In  the  tenth  century  they 
were  approaching  that  intellectual  eminence, 
which,  in  the  two  succeeding  centuries,  they 
so  fully  maintained ;  and  here  and  there  a 
Christian  scholar,  athirst  for  knowledge,  ven- 
tured to  Cordova,  Granada,  or  Seville,  and 
quaffed  it  from  Moslem  fountains. 

Their  influence,  too,  was  felt  in  other  coun- 
tries. Through  their  Sicilian  colony  they 
introduced  paper,  made  from  cotton  and  linen 
rags,  into  Europe ;  and  if  they  were  not  the 
inventors  of  what  are  usually  known  as  the 
Arabic  numerals, — recent  discoveries  making 
it  probable  that  all,  except  the  cipher,  were 
known  to  Boethius, — they  certainly  first  came 
into  general  use  from  their  teachings ;  algebra, 
too,  seems  first  to  have  been  taught  in  their 
schools,  and  the  scholars  of  Christendom  began 
to  discover  that  mathematical  studies  were  of 
some  use  for  other  purposes  than  to  interpret 


150  HISTOEY  OF  EDUCATION. 

the  mystical  sense  of  the  numbers  used  in  the 
Scriptures.  Chemical  science  was  also  intro- 
duced by  them;  and  though  we  cannot  but 
regret  the  years  and  intellect  wasted  in  the 
researches  of  alchemy,  we  may  be  comforted 
by  remembering  the  numerous  discoveries 
which  were  incident  to  it.  Medical  science, 
too,  was  confined,  for  several  centuries,  to  the 
Saracens  and  the  Jews,  who  made  commenda- 
ble progress  in  it. 

The  Jews,  indeed,  were  more  eminent,  in 
general  scholarship,  than  any  of  the  nations 
among  whom  they  dwelt,  and,  but  for  the 
social  disabilities  under  which  they  labored, 
might  have  exerted  a  favorable  influence  upon 
the  intellectual  condition  of  Christendom. 
Sedecias,  the  physician  of  Charles  the  Bald, 
David  Mosel,  Aben  Zoar,  Benjamin  of  Tudela, 
Solomon  ben  Jarchi,  Judah  Cohen,  and  Sava- 
sorda  are  a  few  of  the  eminent  men  of  this 
persecuted  race,  who,  in  the  schools  of  France, 
Italy,  and  Spain,  did  much  service  in  the  cause 
of  education. 


CH-APTER  XII. 

Universities  in  Italy  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries. — Depart- 
ments of  law  and  medicine  established. — Schools  of  the  Benedictine 
and  other  monastic  orders. — Cause  of  the  establishment  of  univer- 
sities.—The  scholastic  philosophy  and  its  founders. — Its  influence. 
— Condition  of  education  in  the  Eastern  Empire. — The  efforts  of 
the  dynasty  of  Comnenus  for  its  improvement. — Downfall  of  the 
Eastern  Empire.^ — Eeflex  influence  upon  Kussia. 

In  Italy,  the  gradual  improvement  in  intelli- 
gence and  learning  began  early  in  the  twelfth 
century  to  exhibit  itself  in  the  organization  of 
universities,  of  which  those  of  Bologna  and 
Salerno  were  the  earliest  examples.  Both 
originated,  as  did  most  of  the  earliest  Euro- 
pean universities,  in  schools  which,  under  a 
succession  of  able  teachers,  had  acquired 
renown  in  some  particular  branch  of  instruc- 
tion. Bologna  had  maintained  such  a  school, 
in  high  repute  for  legal  science,  from  the 
early  part  gf  the  eleventh  century,  and  perhaps 
even  earlier ;  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
twelfth    century,    its    professors    were    often 


152  HISTORY  AND 

called  upon  to  solve  knotty  legal  questions,  by 
the  rulers  of  the  adjacent  States. 

In  1137,  Wernerius,  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent jurists  of  the  middle  ages,  published  and 
expounded  to  a  vast  concourse  of  students  his 
Pandects.  Other  sciences  were  also  taught 
there,  and  the  University  of  Bologna  seems  to 
have  existed  in  fact,  though  not  in  name,  from 
the  early  part  of  the  twelfth  century.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1228.  Salerno  had,  about  the 
same  period,  acquired  a  similar  reputation  in 
medicine. 

In  this  review  of  the  few  lights  whose  glim- 
mering only  rendered  the  darkness  more  visi- 
ble, we  must  not  forget  the  services  rendered 
to  education  by  some  of  the  monastic  orders. 
Though  too  many  of  these  led  lives  of  mere 
sensual  indulgence,  and  gloried  in  their  igno- 
rance, some  were  inspired  with  a  nobler  ambi- 
tion, and  sought  to  render  the  monastic  life 
of  benefit  to  the  world,  as  its  founders  had 
intended. 

The  monks  of  the  Benedictine  order  had, 
from  their  foundation,  devoted  themselves  to 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  153 

the  work  of  teaching ;  and,  under  the  wise 
and  energetic  management  of  Odon,  abbe  of 
Cluny  (927  a.  d.),  they  regained  much  of  their 
early  efficiency.  The  new  orders  of  Chartres 
and  Citeaux,  founded  about  the  close  of  the 
eleventh  century,  were  also  of  material  service 
in  maintaining  the  monastic  schools.  Germany 
was  most  benefited  by  these  labors.  The  con- 
ventual schools  of  Fulda,  Corbie,  Hildesheim, 
Paderborn,  Hersfeld,  and  Hirschau,  became 
renowned  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries, 
not  less  for  the  eminent  men  who  presided 
over  them  than  for  the  extension  of  the 
instruction  beyond  the  seven  liberal  arts. 
Painting  and  poetry,  and  the  Greek  and  Latin 
literature  of  the  classic  ages,  were  taught,  and 
libraries,  with  very  considerable  collections  of 
books,  were  founded. 

The  cathedral  and  collegiate  schools  even 
surpassed  the  conventual,  in  their  curriculum 
of  study  and  in  their  freedom  in  the  use  of  the 
Latin  and  Greek  authors.  But  this  freedom 
was  confined  to  Germany.  Elsewhere  through- 
out Christendom  the  Greek  and  the  Latin  of 


154  HISTORY  AND 

the  Augustan  age  were  prohibited  studies,  and 
fierce   anathemas  were   hurled  at  those  who 
sought  to  acquire  them.      Even  the   bishops^ 
most  zealous  in  the  cause  of  education  were  ( 
fain  to  content  themselves  with  requiring  that  f 
the  inferior  clergy  should  be  able  to  under-  ) 
stand  the  liturgy,  or,  if  this  was  too  much,  that    / 
they  should  at  least  be  able  to  pronounce  it    ) 
correctly  and  recite  it  without  omissions.    The  \ 
clergy  being  thus  illiterate,  the  laity,  as  might 
be  expected,  were  still  more  so.     A  layman 
who  knew  how  to  write  was  reckoned  almost 
a  prodigy ;    in  many  of  the   schools  writing 
was  not  taught,  and  paper  was  yet  so  scarce 
that,  when   taught,    black   surfaces,   like   our 
blackboards,   were   used    for   writing,   or   the 
pupils  were  required  to  furnish  wax  tablets. 
In  1291,  the  Abbe  and  the  entire  Chapter  of 
St.  Gall  did  not  know  how  to  write. 

The  organization  of  a  number  of  universities 
during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries, 
and  the  new  impulse  thus  given  to  learning, 
did  something  to  prevent  the  darkness  of 
iguorance  from  entirely  enshrouding  the  na- 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  155 

tions.  Twenty-three  universities,  including 
those  of  Paris,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Mont- 
pellier,  Toulouse,  Bologna,  Salerno,  Padua, 
Naples,  Salamanca,  Rome,  and  Lisbon,  date 
from  these  two  centuries. 

We  should  deceive  ourselves,  however,  were 
we  to  attribute  this  sudden  establishment  of  so 
many  institutions  of  learning  to  a  revival  of 
letters,  or  a  thirst  for  really  scientific  attain- 
ments. It  was  the  era  of  the  schoolmen;  the 
scholastic  philosophy,  whose  essence  lay  in 
nice  distinctions,  in  subtle  quibbles,  and  in  the 
artful  fence  of  dialectics, — a  philosophy  which 
some  writers  imagine  was  first  taught  by  John 
Scotus,  called  Erigena,  in  the  ninth  century, 
but  which  had  attracted  but  little  attention 
till  the  eloquence  and  logical  ability  of  Roscel- 
linus,  of  William  of  Champeaux,  and  the  re- 
nowned Abelard,  at  the  close  of  the  eleventh 
and  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century, 
drew  listening  thousands  to  their  discussions 
and  prelections, — now  fascinated  the  intellect 
of  Christendom;  and  though,  at  the  present 
day,  the  questions  they  discussed  and  the  dis- 


156  HISTOEY  AND 

tinctions  they  drew  seem  trivial,  puerile,  and 
foolish,  yet,  for  two  centuries  and  more,  they 
so  agitated  the  minds  of  pope  and  prelate,  of 
cowled  monk  and  priestly  father,  of  cleric  and 
laic,  of  doctors  of  law  and  of  theology,  that 
the  universities  which  had  been  created  as 
battle-grounds  for  these  doughty  champions  of 
a  wordy  war,  were  crowded  with  students 
from  all  parts  of  Christendom. 

These  dialectic  conflicts,  wearisome  as  they 
now  are  to  the  reader,  accomplished  much  in 
developing  freedom  of  thought,  and  in  pre- 
paring the  way  for  further  progress  in  edu- 
cation. The  biographers  of  Luther  attribute 
his  power  as  a  debater,  and  his  skill  as  a 
reasoner,  to  his  thorough  mastery  of  the  works 
of  the  schoolmen,  and  especially  to  his  famil- 
iarity with  the  Summa  Theologia  of  Thomas 
Aquinas. 

But  while  thus  tracing  the  educational 
progress  of  western  Europe^  we  must  not 
wholly  overlook  the  condition  of  the  Eastern 
Empire,  which,  at  this  period,  was  tottering  to 
its  fall.     From  the  sixth  century,  there  had 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION,         157 

been  a  gradual  decay  of  all  institutions  for  the 
promotion  of  learning,  up  to  the  period  of  the 
dynasty  of  Comnenus;  and  if,  at  times,  the 
voluptuous  and  effeminate  monarchs,  ruled  by 
women  and  eunuchs,  established  some  schools 
at  Constantinople,  their  influence  was  not  felt 
beyond  the  circle  of  the  court.  Philosophy 
was  indeed  taught  in  their  schools,  but  it  was 
the  half-comprehended  philosophy  of  Aristotle 
and  Plato,  with  the  stupid  glosses  of  the  Neo- 
platonists. 

With  the  accession  of  Isaac  Comnenus  to 
the  throne,  1057  a.  d.,  there  were  symptoms  of 
a  deeper  interest,  on  the  part  of  the  emperor, 
for  the  intellectual  improvement  of  his  people. 
The  schools  of  Constantinople  acquired  a  high 
reputation.  The  ancient  classics  were  intro- 
duced into  them,  and  into  the  conventual 
schools  of  the  empire;  and  though  theology 
formed  too  large  a  share  of  the  instruction, 
still  there  were  more  indications  for  good  than 
in  any  previous  period  of  its  history.  His 
successors  of  that  dynasty  followed  in  his  foot- 
steps, and,  though  possessing  no  great  energy 


158  HISTORY  AND 

of  character,  promoted  learning  to  the  extent 
of  their  ability. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century, 
Constantinople  was  exposed  to  repeated  pil- 
lage; and  the  French  emperors  who,  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  established  the  Latin  Em- 
pire there,  had  no  sympathy  with  the  people 
whom  they  had  conquered,  and  no  desire  for 
their  intellectual  culture.  Trebisond,  indeed, 
and  some  other  of  the  small  independent 
principalities,  maintained  schools  within  their 
own  boundaries  ;  but,  over  the  empire  in 
general,  darkness  reigned.  The  accession  of 
Michael  Palasologus  marks  another,  but  futile, 
effort  to  restore  and  improve  the  schools  of  his 
domain ;  but  centuries  of  misrule  had  done 
their  work  on  the  empire,  and  its  subsequent 
history  is  one  of  constant  and  rapid  deteriora- 
tion, till  at  last  it  fell  a  prey  to  the  Osmanlis. 

Russia  first  appears  on  the  stage,  as  a  Chris- 
tian power,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth 
century,  and  its  subsequent  connection  with 
the  Eastern  Roman  Empire,  especially  in  mat- 
ters of  education,  was  intimate.     From  Con- 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         159 

stantinople  came  its  teachers  and  its  bishops, 
and  its  intellectual  culture  varied  with  that  of 
the  Roman  capital.  In  the  latter  years  of  the 
decline  of  Constantinople,  many  of  its  choicest 
books  were  removed  to  Moscow,  and  the 
great  library  of  the  Patriarchs  was  founded  in 
that  city ;  but  Russian  education  did  not, 
during  the  middle  ages,  rise  above  its  source, 
and,  so  far  as  the  masses  of  the  people  were 
concerned,  came  far  short  of  it. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

Scholasticism  and  mysticism  in  Western  Europe. — Course  of  study  in 
the  universities  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. — Col- 
leges.— Establishment  of  gymnasia  and  trivial  schools  in  Germany. 
— Bacchantes  and  A.  B.  C.  shooters. — Hardships  of  the  latter. — The 
introduction  of  linen  and  cotton  paper. — Text-books  of  the  period. 
— Severity  of  the  school  discipline. — Eminent  friends  of  education 
among  the  mystics. — Female  education  much  neglected  during  this 
period. 

We  return  to  Western  Europe,  where,  in 
spite  of  the  darkness,  there  was  more  of  intel- 
lectual life  than  in  the  effete  Oriental  Empire. 
The  events  of  the  twelfth,  thirteenth,  and 
fourteenth  centuries,  which  had  most  influence 
on  education,  were  the  formal  organization  of 
university  instruction,  the  prevalence  of  the 
scholastic  philosophy,  and  its  rival  and  enemy, 
mysticism^  and  the  changes  effected  by  the 
Crusades. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  origin  of 
most  of  the  universities  in  schools  of  greater 
or  less  repute,  in  which  the  trivium  and  quad- 
riviiim  were  taught,  and,  in  some  instances, 


162  HISTORY  AND 

one  or  more  branches  of  professional  education 
also;  it  was  not  until  the  thirteenth  century 
that  these  schools  were  formally  recognized 
and  endowed  with  money,  and  with  those 
numerous  and  peculiar  privileges  which  made 
them  often  formidable  in  the  civil  and  ecclesi- 
astical conflicts  of  a  later  period ;  and  at  first, 
except  in  the  University  of  Paris,  where  the- 
ology was  taught,  that  of  Salerno,  which  was 
the  seat  of  medical  learning,  and  that  of 
Bologna,  where  the  science  of  law  was  prose- 
cuted, they  seem  not  to  have  gone  beyond 
the  seven  liheral  arts  in  their  instruction. 

Soon,  however,  the  course  of  study  was 
expanded ;  and,  in  addition  to  professional 
education  which  was  given  in  the  greater 
part  (faculties  of  theology,  law,  and  medicine 
being  organized),  the  popes,  for  the  most  part 
reluctantly,  and  with  many  cautions  and 
prohibitions,*  licensed    additional    professors. 


*  From  the  number  of  the  popes  who  were  opposed  to  education, 
justice  requires  that  we  should  except  Gerbert,  who  was  elected  to  the 
pontifical  chair  in  999,  under  the  title  of  Sylvester  II.  Gerbert  was 
one  of  the  most  eminent  scholars,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  liberal 
and  catholic  spirits,  of  his  time.    After  acquiring  what  of  science  could 


riiOGKESS   OF  EDUCATION.  1G3 

Thus  we  find  that,  in  1312,  professorships  of 
Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Chaldee  were  established 
by  the  pope,  at  Rome,  Paris,  Oxford,  Bologna, 
and  Salamanca.  These  languages  were  doubt- 
less regarded  as  less  harmful  than  the  classic 
Latin;  for  Fritz  tells  us  that,  in  1228,  Gregory 
IX.  prohibited  all  instruction  in  the  Latin 
classics,  and  that,  in  1254,  not  only  had  belles- 
lettres  ceased  to  be  cultivated,  even  in  the 
University  of  Paris,  but  the  names  of  Cicero 
and  Virgil  were  unknown  to  the  students,  and 
the  rules  of  prosody  utterly  ignored.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vienna,  then  recently  established 
(founded  a.  d.  1365),  gave  instruction  in 
physics  and  mathematics. 

The  colleges — originally  only  halls,  endowed 
by  benevolent  individuals  to  furnish  lodging, 
and  in  some  instances  food  also,  to  the  stu- 
dents,  but  which   soon   came   to   have   their 


be  learned  in  the  best  schools  of  Christendom,  he  had  crossed  the 
Pyrenees,  and,  in  the  Saracen  university  of  Toledo,  had  mastered  the 
learning  of  the  Arabian  scholars.  Unfortunately,  his  career  as  pope 
was  too  brief  (he  died  in  1003)  to  permit  him  to  accomplish  miich  for 
the  cause  of  education,  which  he  had  so  much  at  heart. 


16i  HISTOEY  AND 

masters,  tutors,  and  special  regulations,  re- 
straining those  who  were  on  their  foundations 
from  the  riotous  and  licentious  lives  of  those 
who  were  students  at  large — also  exerted 
some  influence  in  promoting  a  higher  schol- 
arship. 

In  Germany  a  series  of  schools  were  created, 
preparatory  for  the  universities,  and  known 
under  the  various  names  of  trivial^  from  the 
pupils  studying  only  the  trivium  j  gymnasia^ 
in  which  philosophy  and  history  were  also 
taught,  and  academic  gymnasia^  which,  though 
pursuing  a  course  of  study  as  extensive  as  the 
universities,  had  not  the  power  of  conferring 
degrees.  In  the  fourteenth  century,  a  practice 
prevailed  almost  universally,  over  Middle  and 
Southern  Europe,  which  resulted  in  part, 
doubtless,  from  the  adventurous  spirit  intro- 
duced by  the  Crusades. 

At  first,  the  masters,  teachers,  and  professors 
of  the  schools  and  universities  wandered  from 
one  university  town  to  another,  seeking  per- 
haps new  ideas,  though  often er,  doubtless, 
prompted  by  the  desire  of  a  higher  compensa- 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  165 

tion ;  soon  the  students  began  also  to  lead  a 
vagrant  life,  and,  under  the  name  of  Bac- 
chantes, roamed  over  the  diflferent  university 
towns  of  Europe,  studying  a  little,  but  for  the 
most  part  leading  a  riotous  and  lawless  life, 
and  often  spending  many  years  in  their  travels. 
Possessing  many  immunities  and  privileges  as 
students,  they  took  many  more,  and  became, 
at  last,  the  terror  of  the  towns  they  visited. 

It  was  their  practice  to  attach  to  themselves 
very  considerable  numbers  of  young  boys, 
whom  they  professed  to  teach  the  elements 
of  reading  and  grammar,  but  whom  they 
really  employed  to  forage  for  them,  requiring 
them,  by  begging  or  stealing,  to  procure  their 
food,  and  beating  them  cruelly  if  they  failed 
to  do  so.  Of  the  hardships  endured  by  these 
children,  who  were  called  J..  B.  G.  shooters^ 
Platter,  a  Swiss  scholar  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, who  had  been  one  of  them,  gives  a  most 
interesting  account  in  his  autobiography. 

The  Crusades  had  impoverished  many  of 
the  countries  of  Europe,  and  had  thus,  per- 
haps,   proved    unfavorable    to    the    cause   of 


16f)  HISTORY  AND 

education ;  but  they  had  awakened  the  intel- 
lect of  the  people  from  its  deathlike  slumber, 
had  enlightened  their  minds  as  to  the  produc- 
tions and  learning  of  other  countries,  had 
evoked  a  spirit  of  enterprise,  and  promoted 
commerce,  which,  for  its  efficient  operation, 
required  a  certain  amount  of  education,  greater 
than  that  as  yet  possessed  by  the  people 
generally. 

The  manufacture  of  paper  in  Venice,  which 
followed  the  introduction  of  it  into  Italy 
during  the  Crusades,  also  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  in  the  promotion  of  education,  by 
multiplying  books.  The  text-books  of  this 
period,  however,  contained  little  of  value  in 
the  way  of  instruction  ;  the  Satyricon  of 
Capella,  the  Grammar  of  Donatus,  and  the 
Doctrinal^  a  grammatical  treatise  composed 
by  a  Franciscan  monk  of  Brittany,  and  infe- 
rior in  merit  even  to  Donatus,  were  the  only 
ordinary  text-books;  to  go  beyond  these  re- 
quired a  special  permission  from  the  ecclesi- 
astical authorities ;  and  the  schools  and  pupils 
thus  favored,  were  taught  the  symbols  of  the 


PKOGKESS  OF  EDUCATION.  167 

apostles,  the  penitential  psalms,  the  canticles 
of  the  Church,  the  Morals  of  Cato,  the  Eclogues 
of  Theodulus  (a  very  brief  sacred  history), 
the  Regulce  Pueriles^  the  Consolations  of  Phi- 
losopliy  of  Boethius,  and  a  few  other  works, 
of  similar  character,  but  less  merit.  Geogra- 
phy, history,  the  mathematics,  and  the  physi- 
cal sciences  were  utterly  neglected. 

But   if    the   teachers   bestowed    but    little 
instruction,  they  enforced  that  little  by  a  very 
severe   discipline.      The   title-page   of  almost 
every  text-book   of  this   period,    is   adorned 
with  a  picture  of  the  master  armed  with  a 
bunch  of  rods.     The  code  of  the  school  at/ 
Worms,   in    1260,   provided   ''that  any  pupil) 
whose  bones  have  been  broken,  or  who  hasv- 
been  severely  wounded  by  his  master,  in  chas- 
tising him,  shall  have  the  right  of  quitting  the 
school  without  paying  the  Jionorariumy 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  rise  and 
influence  of  the  scholastic  philosophy.  Its 
quibbles  and  puerilities  disgusted  some  of  the 
most  earnest  and  devoted  men  of  the  Romish 
Church,  and  the  mystical  philosophy  was  the 


168  HISTORY  AND 

result  of  their  protest  against  it.  Among  the 
most  eminent  advocates  of  this  philosophy, 
were  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  Thomas  a  Kempis, 
John  Tauler,  and  Jean  Charlier  de  Gerson, 
who,  though  at  first,  from  his  position  as 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris,  disposed 
to  the  views  of  the  schoolmen,  later  in  life 
sympathized  fully  with  the  mystics.  Several 
of  these  men  were  eminent  for  scholarship, 
and  were  successful  teachers.  Gerson  wrote 
a  work  on  the  moral  and  religious  education 
of  children,  which  is  still  preserved.  It  is  of 
little  value,  except  as  showing  what  were  the 
views  of  enlightened  men  of  that  age  on  the 
subject  of  education.  Vincent  de  Beauvais 
and  Hugues  de  St.  Victor,  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, also  wrote  brief  treatises  on  pedagogy. 
That  of  the  latter,  on  the  method  of  instruc- 
tion, though  too  essentially  theological,  is  a 
work  of  considerable  merit 

During  this  period  (from  the  eleventh  to 
the  fourteenth  century),  female  education  was 
at  a  low  ebb ;  a  few  schools  for  the  instruction 
of  girls  in  reading  were   maintained  in   the 


PKOGEESS  OF  EDUCATION.         169 

larger  cities,  but  beyond  this  they  received 
very  little  mental  culture.  In  the  convents, 
they  were  taught  to  repeat  their  prayers,  to 
practice  embroidery  and  other  needle-work, 
and,  too  often,  to  indulge  in  intrigues  with 
the  monks.  A  distinguished  writer  of  the 
thirteenth  century  defines  the  proper  educa- 
tion of  woman,  as  "knowing  how  to  pray  to 
God,  to  love  man,  to  knit  and  to  sew."  From 
the  time  when  the  gifted  but  ill-fated  Heloise, 
in  the  twelfth  century,  taught  to  her  nuns  the 
Greek  and  Latin  classics  and  the  sciences  then 
known,  to  the  latter  .part  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, Western  Europe  furnishes  no  female  name 
renowned  for  learning,  except  that  of  Christina 
of  Pisa  (1363-1431).  In  the  Eastern  Empire, 
the  names  of  the  Empress  Eudocia  and  Anna 
Comnena  show  that,  in  the  court  circles  at 
least,  the  culture  of  the  intellect  was  not 
deemed  inappropriate  to  woman. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

Chivalry,  and  its  influence  upon  education,— The  celebration  of  the 
deeds  of  its  heroes  in  song.— Troubadours,  Trouveres,  and  Minne- 
singers.— Chansons  and  sirventes. — Kevival  of  literature  in  Italy  in 
the  fourteenth  century. — Formative  influence  on  the  languages  of 
Europe,— Emigration  of  Chrysoloras  and  other  eminent  Greek 
teachers  to  Southern  Europe.— Prevalence  of  the  study  of  classic 
Greek. — Vittorino  da  Feltre,  one  of  the  most  eminent  teachers  of 
the  age. — The  patronage  of  letters  by  the  Medici  and  other  Italian 
sovereigns. — Eminent  scholars  and  teachers  in  Italy. — Gerard  Groot 
and  the  Brethren  of  tlie  Common  Life. — Establishmeiit  of  the 
schools  of  Eton  and  Winchester  in  England. 

There  remains  to  be  noticed  still  one  more 
source  of  educational  influence  affecting  this 
period,  before  we  speak  of  tlie  revival  of 
lettex's,  which  commenced  in  the  fourteenth 
century — viz. :  chivalry,  and  the  literature  of 
the  Troubadours,  Trouveres,  Minnesingers,  and 
bards,  which  grew  naturally  out  of  it.  The 
highest  development  of  chivalry  was  the  result 
of  the  Crusades ;  it  had  existed  before  the  first 
of  them,  and  was  probably  an  institution  of 
Moorish  origin ;  but  in  the  sacrifices,  the  toils, 


172  lirSTOEY  AND 

suflferings,  bravery,  and  heroism  of  the  knights 
of  the  Crusades,  it  reached  its  culinination. 

The  education  of  the  knight  was  rather 
physical  and^  moral  than  intellectual.  Many 
of  the  most  noble  and  distinguished  knights 
could  not  read ;  still  more  of  their  number 
could  not  write ;  but  all,  at  least  in  the  early 
days  of  chivalry,  had  so  cultivated  their  physi- 
cal powers,  as  to  be  able  to  endure  hardships, 
to  undergo  long  and  fierce  contests,  to  make 
light  of  wounds,  and  to  be  agile,  and  skillful  in 
the  use  of  weapons  and  the  management  of 
their  steeds.  They  had  also  learned  to  be 
courteous  to  the  weak,  to  entertain  a  Platonic 
affection  for  some  one  or  more  of  the  fair  sex, 
whose  honor,  purity,  and  beauty  they  main- 
tained against  all  comers,  to  succor  the  feeble 
and  distressed,  and  to  regard,  with  the  highest 
reverence,  the  virtues  of  truth,  honor,  and 
chastity. 

It  was  natural  that  the  virtues  and  noble 
deeds  of  such  men  should  be  embalmed  in 
song ;  and,  in  that  age,  it  was  considered  to 
argue  no  lack  of  modesty  on  the  part  of  the 


PROGEESS  OF  EDUCATION.  173 

hero,  if  he  recounted,  in  the  soft  Provencal 
tongue,  or  in  the  Italian  language,  equally 
fitted  for  song,  the  deeds  of  daring  he  had 
attempted,  and  the  victories  he  had  won. 

Those  who  wooed  the  fair,  whose  colors 
they  had  worn,  with  their  sonnets,  in  which 
amatory  verse  mingled  with  the  narration  of 
their  deeds,  were,  in  the  Langue  d'Oc  or  Pro- 
vengal  language,  called  Troubadours  *  in  the 
Langue  d'Oil,  Trouveres  j  and  among  the  Ger- 
mans, Minnesingers  (Minnesanger).  After  a 
time  these  songs  were  divided  into  two  classes 
— the  chansons^  or  amatory  songs,  and  the 
sirventes^  or  songs  of  a  warlike,  and  sometimes 
of  a  satiric,  or  even  didactic  character.  The 
character  of  this  poetry  is  not  very  high, 
probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  its  authors 
were  mostly  illiterate ;  but  among  the  trouba- 
dours were  found  the  most  powerful  monarchs 
and  the  most  intellectual  men  of  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries,  Frederic  Barbarossa, 
Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  several  of  the  kings  of 
France,  the  Comte  de  Provence,  and  many 
others  of  similar  rank,  being  among  the  num- 


174  ^      HISTOKY  AND 

ber;  and  not  a  few  of  their  productions  are 
devoted  to  the  subject  of  the  education  of 
knights,  cavaliers,  and  high-born  dames. 

The  overwhelming  corruption  which  fol- 
lowed the  Crusades,  however,  soon  dragged 
down,  to  its  own  level,  the  lofty  principles  of 
chivalry ;  the  platonic  love  of  its  earlier  days 
subsided  into  a  grosser  passion,  its  honor 
dwindled  into  mere  courtesy,  and  its  brave 
defence  of  the  weak  and  the  distressed  into 
the  raids  and  conflicts  of  civil  war.  The 
lessons  of  obedience,  truth,  honor,  and  fidelity, 
which  the  chevalier  had  learned  in  his  various 
service  of  page,  esquire,  and  knight,  were  no 
more  taught,  and  chivalry  at  last  grew  to  be  a 
subject  for  the  ridicule  of  brilliant  wits.  Long 
ere  this  its  literature  had  degenerated,  and 
the  chansons  and  sirventes  of  the  earlier  times 
were  replaced  by  odes  and  songs  too  gross  to 
be  tolerated. 

The  fourteenth  century  was  remarkable  as 
the  period  when  the  languages  of  Europe 
attained  a  more  perfect  development,  and 
became    fixed   in   substantially   their   present 


PEOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  175 

forms.  The  Italian,  now  universally  acknowl- 
edged the  best  adapted  of  them  all  for  poetry, 
improvisation,  and  song,  first  showed  its  won- 
derful flexibility  in  the  writings  of  Dante 
Alighieri,  Petrarch,  and  Boccacio,  during  that 
century ;  the  Spanish  did  not  develop  its  full 
powers  till  a  century  later;  the  French  was, 
under  the  fostering  care  of  the  University  of 
Paris,  rapidly  improving  as  an  admirable 
medium  for  earnest  debate  and  animated 
conversation ;  the  German,  with  its  Suabian 
element  largely  increased  by  the  popular 
songs  of  the  Minnesingers,  was  taking  form 
and  shape  to  become,  a  hundred  and  fifty 
years  later,  the  vehicle  of  the  vigorous  elo- 
quence of  the  Reformers;  while  the  English 
was  almost  created,  in  its  written  form,  by  the 
genius  of  Chaucer.  Hitherto,  these  languages 
could  hardly  be  said  to  have  had  any  gram- 
matical principles ;  the  attempt  to  bend  them 
to  the  old  Latin  rules  had  introduced  so  many 
anomalies,  that  the  task  of  adhering  to  gram- 
matical constructions  was  beyond  the  ability 
of  most  writers ;  but,  after  the  advent  of  the 


176  HISTOKY  AND 

writers  we  have  named,  new  views  prevailed, 
and  the  languages  were  thenceforth  subordi- 
nated only  to  rules  drawn  from  the  most 
natural  construction  of  each. 

The  tottering  condition  of  the  Eastern  Em- 
pire caused  the  more  eminent  of  its  scholars 
(and  the  last  century  of  its  existence  was 
notable  for  quite  a  number  of  these)  to  mi- 
grate to  Italy,  and  there  expand  the  knowl- 
edge of  its  language  and  literature.  Prominent 
among  them,  as  successful  teachers,  were  the 
brothers  John  and  Emmanuel  Chrysoloras, 
who  came  to  Florence  in  1397,  and  there 
taught  the  Greek  classics  and  the  Platonic 
philosophy. 

At  that  period,  very  few  of  the  best  scholars 
of  Western  Europe  were  familiar  with  the 
Greek,  and  fewer  still  knew  any  thing  of 
Plato.  But  the  constant  immigration  of 
learned  Greeks  into  Italy  and  France,  awak- 
ened enthusiasm  in  the  study  of  both  the 
language  and  the  philosophy,  and  led  to  the 
collection  and  transcription  of  many  Greek 
and   Latin    manuscripts,    which,    up    to    that 


PROGRESS   OF  EDUCATION.  177 

period,  had  remained  unknown  in  the  cells 
and  dungeons  of  the  monasteries;  yet,  for 
nearly  half  a  century  later,  Greek  was  taught 
in  the  universities  only  by  emigrants  from 
Greece, — Gregory  of  Tiferno,  in  1458,  being 
the  first  teacher  of  Greek,  in  the  University  of 
Paris,  who  was  not  himself  a  Greek. 

Among  the  most  eminent  teachers  of  the 
period  of  which  we  are  treating,  for  his 
attainments  in  science,  his  intelligent  views  in 
regard  to  instruction,  and  his  practical  tact  as 
a  teacher,  was  Vittorino  Rambaldini  da  Feltre, 
born  1378,  who  taught  in  the  University  of 
Padua,  and  subsequently  at  Venice  and  Man- 
tua. It  has  seldom  been  the  lot  of  a  teacher, 
who  himself  wrote  nothing  on  the  subject  of 
education,  to  be  so  honored  by  after  ages  for 
his  success  in  teaching.  Several  of  the  Italian 
writers  give  us  copious  accounts  of  his  system 
of  education.  He  deemed  it  the  duty  of  the 
teacher  to  exercise  a  constant  supervision 
over  his  pupils,  and  hence  he  lived  with  them, 
and  ate  at  the  same  table,  which  was  spread 

with  wholesome  but  plain  food.     He  organ- 

*8« 


178  msTORY  AND 

ized  a  system  of  gymnastic  exercises,  and 
enforced  their  regular  practice.  He  taught 
the  rudiments  of  science  very  thoroughly,  and 
to  his  older  pupils  gave  instruction  in  rhetoric, 
mathematics,  and  ethics. 

In  a  corrupt  age,  he  was  exceedingly  strict 
in  regard  to  the  morals  of  those  under  his 
charge,  and  appealed  in  all  cases  to  their  own 
moral  sense  of  the  quality  of  their  actions. 
He  studied  carefully  the  temper,  disposition, 
and  abilities  of  each,  that  he  might  be  able  to 
direct  them  in  their  studies  and  in  the  selec- 
tion of  a  professional  course.  In  his  govern- 
ment he  was  mild  but  firm,  and  won  the  love 
and  friendship  of  his  pupils.  Among  the 
distinguished  teachers  and  writers  on  educa- 
tion, of  the  fifteenth  century,  in  Italy,  were 
Peter  Paul  Verger  (died  1428),  Valla,  the 
most  accomplished  Latin  scholar  of  his  time ; 
Poggio  Bracciolini,  also  an  eminent  Latinist; 
Mapheus  Vegino  (died  1458),  and  Eneas  Syl- 
vius, afterward  Pope  Pius  II. 

All  of  these  wrote  extensively  on  educa- 
^    tional  subjects^  and  Valla  and  Eneas  Sylvius 


PROGEESS  OF  EDUCATION.         179 

prepared  valuable  text-books, — the  former  in 
Latin  grammar  and  the  Latin  classics;  the 
latter  in  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  universal 
history.  Purbach,  Regiomontanus,  and  Nico- 
las Cusanus  were  the  first  to  promote  the 
study  of  the  higher  mathematics,  and  to  pre- 
pare logarithmic  tables.  Several  of  the  Italian 
sovereigns,  during  this  century,  were  eminent 
patrons  of  literature  and  science ;  especially 
the  Pope  Nicolas  V.,  the  founder  of  the  Vati- 
can library;  Frederic  of  Aragon,  king  of 
Naples;  and,  above  all,  the  Medici  family,  and 
particularly  Cosmo,  and  Lorenzo  the  Magnifi- 
cent. It  was  owing  mainly  to  their  exertions 
and  those  of  the  other  sovereigns  of  Italian 
States,  prompted  by  rivalry,  that  Italy,  during 
the  fifteenth  century,  maintained  the  pre-emi- 
nence in  arts,  science,  and  literature. 

Among  the  most  eminent  men  of  learning, 
whom  this  wise  and  noble  policy  drew  to  the 
Italian  cities,  were  Politian,  the  author  of  the 
Miscellanea^  and  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin 
eloquence  at  Florence  in  1483 ;  Christopher 
Landino,  Hermolaus  Barbaras,  and,  pre-emi* 


180  HISTOEY  AND 

nent  over  them  all  in  genius  and  intellectual 
power,  Lionardo  da  Vinci.  In  Spain,  toward 
the  close  of  the  century,  Lebrexa  Nebrissensis, 
by  his  own  extensive  classical  learning,  and 
his  lectures  at  Seville,  Salamanca,  Alcala,  and 
other  Spanish  universities,  effected  a  reform  in 
classical  studies.  He  also  prepared  valuable 
grammars  in  the  Castilian,  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew  languages. 

In  Holland,  the  prevalence  of  ignorance  and 
vice  led  one  of  the  noblest  men  in  the  Romish 
Church  in  that  country,  Gerard  de  Groot 
(1340-1384),  to  organize  the  order  oi Brethren 
of  the  Common  Life^  an  association  resembling, 
more  nearly  perhaps  than  any  other,  that  of 
the  Brethren  of  the  Inner  Mission,  founded, 
during  the  present  century,  by  Dr.  J.  H. 
Wichern.  This  order  had  little  in  common 
with  the  mendicant  friars;  its  members  usually 
took  no  vows,  provided  for  their  few  and 
simple  wants  by  their  daily  labor,  and  devoted 
themselves  to  the  work  of  teaching  and  re- 
forming the  ignorant  and  vicious.  The  times 
were  favorable  to  such  an  organization,  and,  in 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         181 

a  few  years,  they  had  more  than  a  hundred 
congregations,  and  in  less  than  a  century  their 
schools  were  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  larger 
cities  of  Germany,  Switzerland,  Denmark,  and 
the  Low  Countries.  They  were  opposed  by 
the  mendicant  friars,  but  sustained  by  the 
popes.  Deventer,  in  Holland,  was  their  prin- 
cipal seat,  and  from  thence,  after  the  death  of 
Gerard,  Florence  de  Radewin,  his  associate 
and  successor,  continued  to  direct  them  until 
his  death.  In  England,  the  establishment  of 
the  great  schools  of  Winchester  and  Eton,  as 
well  as  of  Winchester  College  and  several 
others  at  Oxford,  belong  to  the  latter  part  of 
the  fifteenth  century. 


CHAPTEB  Xr. 

Moral  condition  of  Europe  at  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century 
and  the  commencement  of  the  fifteenth.— Invention  of  the  art  of 
printing. — Discovery  of  America.-— liifluence  of  these  events  in 
promoting  education. — Eminent  scholars  and  teachers  in  Germany 
in  the  fifteenth  century.— The  dawn  of  the  Beformatlon  in  the 
sixteenth  century.— Erasmus,  Luther,  Melancthon,  Zuinglius,  and 
Calvin  as  educators. — Abundance  of  Luthet's  labors  for  the  genefal 
diflitsion  of  education. 

While,  in  several  of  the  countries  of  Europe, 
considerable  intellectual  progress  had  been 
made,  the  fourteenth  century  was,  in  morals, 
the  darkest  of  the  dark  ages.  The  restraining 
influence  of  chivalry  was  gone,  as  that  of 
religion  had  long  been ;  the  poverty,  lawless- 
ness, and  evil  manners  which  had  resulted 
from  the  Crusades,  had  fully  wrought  their 
direful  results ;  the  Roman  pontiffs,  the  cardi- 
nals, bishops,  and  inferior  clergy,  and,  above 
all,  the  monastic  orders,  set  examples,  which 
the  laity  were  not  slow  to  follow,  of  participa- 
tion in  murder,  violence,  and  lust ;  indulgences 
for  the  commission  of  any  crime,  except  her- 


184-  HISTORY  AND 

esy,  could  be  purchased  for  a  trifliDg  sum; 
and  over  the  extensive  realms  which  acknowl- 
edged the  power  of  the  Papal  See,  and  the 
hardly  less  extensive  regions  which  yielded  to 
the  spiritual  dominion  of  the  Greek  Patriarch, 
vice  and  corruption  reigned  in  forms  so  loath- 
some and  vile  that  it  seemed  that  nothing  less 
than  the  waters  of  a  second  deluge,  or  the  still 
more  effectual  purification  of  an  all-consuming 
fire,  could  purge  the  continent  of  its  guilt. 

Two  events  hastened  the  upheaval  for  which 
the  nations  were  looking:  the  invention  of 
printing,  about  1450,  and  the  discovery  of 
America,  in  1492.  Hitherto,  books  had  been 
scarce  and  costly;  multiplied,  often  at  the 
expense  of  correctness,  by  the  slow  process  of 
copying,  they  were  beyond  the  reach  of  all 
but  the  wealthy  few ;  the  peasantry  of  Europe 
were  rarely  or  never  taught  to  read,  and  if 
they  had  been,  could  not  have  procured 
books ; — but,  under  the  rapid  multiplication  of 
books  by  the  new  art,  they  were  to  become 
the  property  and  joy  of  the  masses;  and  as 
the  discovery  of  America  opened  new  fields  of 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  185 

enterprise  and  new  sources  of  wealth  to 
crowded  Europe,  men  of  intelligence,  and  at 
least  of  moderate  education,  were  in  demand, 
to  occupy  the  newly-discovered  lands,  and 
lead  the  way  to  richer  harvests  of  wealth 
and  fame. 

Amid  the  general  dissoluteness  of  morals, 
there  were  a  few  noble  spirits,  who  struggled 
to  promote  in  the  minds  of  their  pupils,  and 
in  the  communities  in  which  they  dwelt, 
higher  aspirations  and  nobler  aims.  Such 
were  Rodolphe  Langius  of  Westphalia,  Mau- 
rice of  Spielberg,  who  gave  the  school  at 
Emmerich  a  high  reputation ;  Louis  Dringen- 
berg  of  Selestat,  Dalberg,  Conrad  Celtes, 
Bebel,  Beatus  Rhenanus,  Wimpheling,  Pirck- 
heimer,  and,  a  little  later.  Bishop  John  of 
Dahlberg,  Rodolphe  Agricola  of  Groningen, 
to  whom,  and  to  Pedro  Ponce  de  Leon,  a 
Spanish  Benedictine  monk,  belongs  the  honor 
of  having  first  successfully  attempted  the  in- 
struction of  deaf  mutes ;  these  and  others,  who 
formed  a  scientific  alliance  which,  under  the 
name  of  the  Association  of  the  Bhine^  accom- 


186  HISTOEY  AND 

plished  much  for  education  in  Germany  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Reuchlin, 
too,  though  perhaps  not  a  professed  teacher 
till  near  the  close  of  his  life,  yet  rendered 
good  service  to  classical  education,  and,  by 
his  controversy  with  Pfeflferkorn  and  the  in- 
quisitor Hochstraten,  gave  a  powerful  impulse 
to  that  freedom  of  thought  which  was  so  soon 
to  revolutionize  Christendom.  In  the  first  half 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Reformation 
had  commenced  in  Germany,  under  the  labors 
of  Luther,  Melancthon,  Ecolampadius,  Justus 
Jonas,  and  others ;  and  in  Switzerland  and 
France,  under  Zuinglius  and  Calvin. 

All  these  men  were,  for  their  time,  brilliant 
and  accomplished  scholars,  and  most  of  them 
had  been  engaged  in  teaching  in  some  of 
the  universities  of  their  respective  countries. 
Erasmus,  too,  though  a  man  of  more  timid 
spirit  than  the  Reformers,  was  eminent  as  a 
teacher,  and  exerted  a  powerful  influence  in 
the  promotion  of  education.  Budasus,  uni- 
versally regarded  as  the  most  profound  Greek 
scholar  of  his   time  in   Europe,   also   accom- 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         187 

plished  much  for  education  in  France,  both  by 
his  Greek  commentaries  and  his  labors  as  a 
teacher.  It  was  reserved,  however,  for  Luther 
and  Melancthon  to  inaugurate  a  new  era  in 
the  cause  of  education. 

Hitherto  there  had  been,  as  we  have  already 
said,  no  education  for  the  masses ;  but  it  was 
a  necessary  corollary  from  Luther's  religious 
principles,  that  the  whole  people  must  be 
taught,  that  they  might  read  the  Scriptures: 
hitherto,  the  teaching  of  the  universities,  of 
the  gymnasia,  and  of  the  trivial  schools,  had 
been  mainly  directed  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
memory ;  the  pupil  was  not  required  to  reason 
upon,  not  even  to  understand,  many  of  the 
lessons  which  he  was  taught ;  the  memory 
was  taxed  with  the  recollection  of  vast  quan- 
tities of  rubbish,  of  little  service,  either  when 
committed  or  afterward;  but  Luther  insisted 
on  the  development  of  thought  and  the  culture 
of  the  reasoning  powers ;  and,  though  himself 
versed  in  all  the  subtleties  of  the  scholastic 
philosophy,  he  did  not  deem  it  well  suited  to 
cultivate  and  invigorate  the  minds  of  youth, 


188  HISTORY  AND 

and  therefore  denounced  it  with  his  usual 
energy  and  vehemence. 

In  1527,  he  and  his  friend  Melancthon  were 
directed,  by  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  to  investi- 
gate the  condition  of  the  schools  of  that 
country,  and,  if  necessary,  to  reorganize  them. 
This,  by  their  joint  labor,  was  accomplished, 
and  their  plan  of  instruction  published,  which 
provided  for  the  education  of  children  of  all 
classes  and  both  sexes,  in  the  elementary 
studies,  and  for  a  more  extended  course  for 
those  who  gave  promise  of  intellectual  ability. 
But  Luther's  views  were  too  comprehensive  to 
be  restricted  within  the  limits  of  the  electorate 
of  Saxony. 

In  1524,  he  had  published  "a^  address  to  the 
councilmen  of  all  the  towns  of  Germany^  calling 
upon  them  to  establish  and  sustain  Christian 
schools;"  and  still  earlier  (in  1520),  he  had 
published  a  plan  for  reforming  the  universities, 
with  whose  methods  of  study  and  course  of 
instruction  he  was  greatly  dissatisfied.  In  all 
his  educational  writings  (and  they  were 
numerous),  he  inculcated  strongly  the  neces- 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  189 

sity  of  a  more  thorough  classical  culture,  and 
also  of  extended  mathematical  study. 

The  study  of  Hebrew,  which,  if  ever  taught 
in  the  German  universities,  had  been  discon- 
tinued for  a  long  time,  was,  at  his  earnest 
entreaty,  commenced  and  carried  to  such 
extent  as  the  imperfect  text-books  of  the  time 
would  allow.  History,  too,  was  thenceforth 
introduced  into  the  curriculum  of  study,  and 
the  scholastic  philosophy,  and  the  study  of  the 
canon  and  imperial  law,  were  discarded.  In 
all  these  reforms  he  was  powerfully  seconded 
by  Melancthon,  and  their  united  influence 
induced  the  changes  they  desired  in  many  of 
the  German  universities,  though  the  scholastic 
philosophy  was  slow  in  yielding  to  a  better 
system. 

In  addition  to  these  labors  in  behalf  of  edu- 
cation, Luther  also  appealed  to  the  magistrates 
of  the  German  cities,  to  establish  libraries  for 
the  benefit  of  scholars;  and  to  his  efforts  is 
due  the  foundation  of  some  of  the  best  public 
libraries  of  Germany.  Melancthon  is  deserving 
of  as  high  praise  as  Luther,  for  his  zeal  in  the 


190  HISTOBY  AND 

cause  of  education,  and  of  the  added  honor  of 
having  been  the  first  to  instruct  his  pupils  in 
the  art  of  teaching,  causing  them  to  give 
instruction  in  his  presence,  correcting  their 
errors,  and  inculcating,  both  by  precept  and 
example,  the  principles  of  skillful  teaching. 

Zuinglius  accomplished  less  for  the  cause  of 
education  than  some  of  his  brother  reformers, 
not  because  his  zeal  was  less,  or  his  capacity 
inferior,  but  because  his  position  was  different, 
and  his  early  death  gave  him  less  opportunity 
of  usefulness.  He,  however,  reformed  and 
elevated  the  Academy  of  Zurich  to  the  rank 
and  character  of  a  university,  and  gave  it  such 
impulses  in  the  right  direction,  that  it  has 
ever  since  maintained  a  high  rank  among  the 
educational  institutions  of  Switzerland.  A 
single  essay  on  the  instruction  of  youth  is 
found  among  his  published  works, 

Calvin,  the  mightiest  intellect  among  the 
Reformers,  was  also  a  zealous  friend  of  educa- 
tion, urging  the  instruction  of  children,  and 
giving  not  only  his  powerful  influence,  but 
his  personal  labors,  to   the   establishment  of 


PEOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         191 

the  Academy  of  Geneva.  His  plan  of  gov- 
ernment for  Geneva  also  included  the  organi- 
zation of  schools  for  the  training  of  children 
and  youth. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

John  Sturm,  the  most  eminent  teacher  in  Germany  in  the  sixteenth 
century. — Trotzendorf  and  other  eminent  cotemporaries  of  Sturm. 
— Progress  of  education  in  England. — The  organization  of  schools 
and  a  system  of  education  by  the  Jesuits. — Principal  features  of 
this  system. — M.  Villers'  characterization  of  it. — Text-books  used 
by  the  Jesuits. — The  good  results  they  did  accomplish. — Decline 
of  the  best  Protestant  schools. 

The  most  eminent  name  connected  with 
education  in  Germany,  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, is  that  of  John  Sturm  (1507-1589), 
Trained  at  first  in  one  of  the  schools  of  the 
''Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,"  at  Liege, 
and  afterward  a  student  and  teacher  at  the 
University  of  Louvain,  he  removed,  in  1529, 
to  Paris,  where  he  taught,  with  high  reputa- 
tion, for  eight  years ;  when  he  was  invited,  by 
the  magistrates  of  Strasburg,  to  organize  and 
conduct  a  gymnasium,  or  academy  of  high 
order,  in  that  city.  He  removed  thither  in 
1537,  and,  for  forty-one  years,  remained  at  the 
head  of  the  school  he  had  organized. 


194  llISTOPvY  AND 

He  possessed,  perhaps  in  a  greater  degree 
than  any  man  of  his  time,  that  combination  of 
an  enthusiastic  love  for  teaching  with  great 
executive  powers,  which  made  him  the  admi- 
ration of  the  many  eminent  men  with  whom  he 
was  on  terms  of  intimacy  and  correspondence. 
His  instructions  to  his  teachers,  and  his  exami- 
nation papers  for  several  years,  are  still  in 
existence ;  and  they  give  evidence  of  a  more 
thorough  and  systematic  study  of  the  classics 
than  had  been  previously  attempted  in  the 
middle  ages.  He  divided  his  school  into  ten 
classes,  each  composed  of  several  decurtce  or 
tens,  and  placed  a  teacher  over  each  class. 
His  course  of  instruction  was  steadily  pro- 
gressive, from  the  tenth  class  up  to  the  first, 
and  his  examinations  severe  and  critical.  In 
1578,  more  than  one  thousand  pupils  attended 
his  instruction.  His  influence  in  the  thorough 
organization  of  gymnasia,  throughout  Ger- 
many, was  very  great. 

Cotemporary  with  Sturm  was  Friedland, 
better  known  by  his  patronymic  of  Trotzen- 
dorf,  rector  of  the  academy  at  Goldberg,  in 


PROGEESS  OF  EDUCATION.  195 

Silesia,  whose  methods  of  instruction  and  gov- 
ernment were  novel  and  efficient.  He  adhered 
to  the  Socratic  method  in  teaching,  and  was, 
so  far  as  we  know,  the  first  teacher  who  ever 
committed  the  government  of  his  pupils  to 
themselves,  organizing  them  into  a  court,  or 
senate,  to  decide  on  the  olBFences  committed 
and  the  punishment  they  merited;  the  mem- 
bers of  this  senate  being  the  pupils  whose 
behavior,  for  a  month  previous,  had  been  most 
exemplary. 

To  him,  too,  belongs  the  honor  of  the  first 
inception  of  that  monitorial  system  which,  long 
afterward,  received  its  full  development  from 
Lancaster  and  others.  Beside  Trotzendorf, 
Bugenhagen  at  Hamburg,  Spalatin  at  Alten- 
burg,  Neander  at  Nordhausen,  and  Sylburgius 
and  Heyden  at  Nuremburg,  were  distinguish- 
ing themselves  and  benefiting  their  generation 
by  the  introduction  of  more  rational  methods 
of  teaching,  and  by  the  development  of  a 
purer  classical  taste  and  a  more  extended 
course  of  study. 

Under  the  united  labors  of  these  men  and 


196  HISTORY  AND 

those  whom  they  had  trained  as  teachers,  the 
Latin  authors  of  the  Augustan  age  became  the 
text-books,  in  the  place  of  works  written  in 
barbarous,  monkish  Latin;  and  Greek  was  as 
thoroughly  understood  in  Germany  as  it  had 
been,  the  previous  century,  in  Italy.  Indeed 
Germany,  before  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  could  boast  of  more  eminent  scholars 
than  any  other  country  of  Europe. 

In  England,  too,  the  long  period  of  darkness 
and  ignorance  was  passing  away ;  and  under 
the  fostering  care  of  Grocyn,  Cheke,  Smith, 
afterward  secretary  of  state  to  Queen  Eliza- 
beth ;  Sir  Thomas  Elyot ;  and  Lily,  Cox,  Udal, 
and  Norvell,  eminent  teachers  of  the  time ; 
and,  a  little  later,  Roger  Ascham  (the  friend 
and  correspondent  of  Sturm),  Cecil,  and  others, 
the  schools  and  colleges  of  England  gradually 
took  a  higher  position.  Ascham  was  one  of 
the  most  learned  men  of  the  age,  and,  in  his 
little  treatise,  "  The  Scholemaster^^^  sought  to 
introduce  better  methods  of  instruction  and 
discipline  than  those  usually  employed  at  that 
period. 


PKOGKESS  OF  EDUCATION.  197 

The  extraordinary  progress  which  was  made 
by  the  Protestant  countries  in  education,  and 
the  great  numbers  of  students,  from  all  coun- 
tries, who  sought  instruction  in  their  gymnasia 
and  universities,  induced  the  conviction,  on  the 
part  of  the  intelligent  adherents  of  the  Romish 
communion,  that  unless  there  were  a  corre- 
sponding advance  in  their  schools  and  univer- 
sities, there  would  be  a  very  serious  defection, 
both  in  numbers  and  influence,  from  their 
ranks.  The  monastic  schools  were  urged,  but 
without  effect,  to  introduce  improvements  and 
occupy  a  higher  position ;  even  the  schools  of 
the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  or  Hiero- 
nymians^  as  they  were  now  called,  in  the  lapse 
of  two  centuries  had  lost  much  of  their  early 
reputation. 

It  was  at  this  juncture  that  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  organized,  in  1540,  by  Ignatius  Loyola, 
to  oppose  the  heresy  of  the  Reformation,  first 
attempted  the  organization  of  schools ;  and 
this,  like  all  their  other  enterprises,  was 
crowned  with  speedy  success.  The  Jesuit, 
adroit,  supple,  versatile,  and  accomplished,  was 


198  HISTOEY  AND 

well  qualified  for  the  task  before  him,  in  which 
it  was  of  quite  as  much  importance  to  know 
what  not  to  teach,  as  on  what  topics  instruction 
should  be  imparted. 

An  eminent  Catholic  writer,  M.  Villers,  in  a 
work  crowned  by  the  Institute  of  France,  says 
of  their  instruction:  ''It  was  their  maxim  to 
cultivate,  and  push  to  the  highest  possible 
degree  of  perfection,  every  kind  of  knowledge 
which  would  not  result  in  any  immediate 
danger  for  the  hierarchical  power,  and  to 
acquire  thereby  the  esteem  and  renown  of 
being  the  most  accomplished  and  capable 
scholars  of  the  Christian  world.  This  suprem- 
acy once  attained,  it  was  easy  for  them  either 
to  paralyze  those  branches  of  knowledge 
which  would  bear  fruit  dangerous  to  the 
papacy,  or  to  trim,  direct,  and  graft  them 
according  to  their  will."  Their  text-books 
were  all  prepared  by  members  of  the  order, 
who,  with  the  utmost  skill,  molded  the  facts 
of  history,  the  reasonings  of  philosophy,  and 
the  principles  of  theology,  to  suit  their 
purpose. 


PEOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  199 

The  result,  to  their  pupils,  was  a  brilliant, 
but  one-sided  education,  ''fitting  them,"  says 
M.  Villers,  ''for  becoming  polished  writers, 
scholars,  orators,  good  Roman  Catholics,  Jesu- 
its, even,  if  they  wished,  but  not  men^  in  the 
full  acceptation  of  the  term ;  and  he  who  be- 
came a  man  under  their  discipline,  became  so 
independently  of  it,  and  in  spite  of  it." 

From  the  Ratio  et  institutio  studiorum  Socte- 
talis  Jesu^  published  in  1599,  under  the  sanc- 
tion of  Claudius  de  Aquaviva,  then  general  of 
the  order,  and  which,  with  slight  modifications, 
is  still  the  educational  system  of  the  Jesuit 
schools,  we  gather  that  Latin  was  taught  in 
these  schools,  both  as  a  written  and  spoken 
language,  to  the  entire  disuse  of  the  vernac- 
ular, for  the  use  of  which  penalties  were 
inflicted;  that  the  only  classic  Latin  authors 
used  were  Cicero  and  Virgil,  and  that,  for  the 
rest  of  the  Latin  instruction,  the  pupils  were 
taught  from  the  Latin  works  of  Mediaeval 
writers ;  that  Greek  was  also  taught,  but  only 
from  the  works  of  Chrysostom  and  the  other 
Christian  fathers;  that  beyond  these  humani- 


200  IIISTOKY  AND 

ties^  as  they  were  called,  there  were  no  other 
studies  in  the  preparatory  or  lower  classes, 
except  grammar  (Latin  and  Greek)  and  rhet- 
oric. In  Greek  grammar  the  Jesuit  fathers 
prepared  a  very  good. text-book;  in  Latin,  the 
old  Grammars  of  Donatus  and  Priscian  were 
used ;  neither  history,  geography,  mathematics, 
nor  physical  science  were  taught.  This  course 
occupied  six  years. 

The  higher  course  consisted  of — First,  Phi- 
losophy, which  occupied  two  or  three  years, 
and  which  was  taught  from  Aristotle, — the 
Latin  version  translated  from  the  Arabic  of 
Averroes,  which  had  been  translated  from  the 
Syriac,  and  this  from  the  Greek  (as  yet  there 
was  not  known  to  exist  any  direct  version 
of  Aristotle  from  Greek  into  Latin,  or  any  of 
the  vernacular  tongues  of  Western  Europe). 
Aristotle  was  interpreted  according  to  Thomas 
Aquinas,  the  great  light  of  the  scholastic  phi- 
losophy. Second,  Instruction  in  morals,  from 
the  ethics  of  Aristotle.  Third,  Mathematics,  em- 
bracing the  elements  of  Euclid  and  a  few  of  the 
simpler  problems  of  mathematical  geography. 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  201 

Then  followed  a  course  of  theology  for  those 
who  were  deemed  suitable  candidates  for  it. 
Here,  so  far  as  the  Scriptures  were  concerned, 
the  Vulgate  was  the  guide,  to  which  all  else 
must  be  made  to  correspond;  even  the  He- 
brew Scriptures  must  be  read  only  by  the 
Vulgate.  In  scholastic  theology,  Aquinas  was 
again  the  authority,  from  whom  no  deviation 
was  allowed.  In  casuistry,  the  genius  of  the 
order  shone  out  with  peculiar  brilliancy,  and 
for  the  professors  of  this  branch  its  ablest  men 
were  selected. 

Emulation  was  the  great  incentive  to  prog- 
ress among  the  pupils,  and  the  shameful  sys- 
tem of  delation — that  is,  acting  the  part  of  the 
spy  and  tale-bearer,  for  the  purpose  of  gaining 
promotion — was  regarded  as  praiseworthy ; 
corporeal  punishment  was  seldom  inflicted, 
and  only  by  persons  not  members  of  the  order, 
lest  the  pupils  should  be  prejudiced  against 
their  teachers.  The  examinations  and  distri- 
butions of  prizes  were  conducted  publicly,  and 
with  great  pomp.  Such  was  the  system  which, 
in  1600,  had  in  France  alone  two  hundred 

9« 


202  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION. 

schools.  Faulty  as  it  was  in  many  particulars, 
it  produced  good  Latin  scholars  for  that  age ; 
and  some  of  the  pupils  of  its  schools  have 
hardly  been  surpassed  since  that  time,  in  their 
command  of  a  pure  and  polished  Latin  style. 

With  the  death  of  the  leading  Reformers, 
the  literary  as  well  as  theological  activity, 
which  had  inspired  the  ranks  of  the  Protes- 
tants, seemed  gradually  to  wane.  The  Jesuits 
won  many  of  them  back  to  the  Catholic  faith, 
and  the  most  celebrated  of  their  schools  lost, 
wholly  or  in  part,  their  reputation. 


CHAPTEK   XVII. 

The  Novum  Organon  of  Lord  Bacon. — The  era  of  the  Classicists. 
— Rabelais,  Montaigne. — Peter  Eamus  and  the  Aristotelian  philos- 
ophy.— Progress  in  the  higher  mathematics  and  in  physical  science. 
— The  improvements  in  geographical  science. — Stephen's  Thesaurus, 
— Constantin,  Calepin,  and  Scapula's  dictionaries. — Wolfgang  Ea- 
TicH. — His  new  plans,  and  their  faults. — John  Amos  Comenius,  de- 
serving of  high  honor  for  his  labors  in  the  cause  of  education. — His 
Janua  Linguarum  Beserata.. — His  Orhis  Sensualium  Pictus^  the  first 
illustrated  school-book. — His  other  educational  works. 

The  intellect  of  Europe  had  now  been  thor- 
oughly roused,  and  the  bounds  of  human 
knowledge  were  constantly  increasing  during 
the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It 
was  at  this  period  that  Lord  Bacon's  Novum 
Organon^  perhaps  the  grandest  contribution 
ever  made  to  science,  was  published;  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  the  most  eminent  classical 
scholars  were  endeavoring  to  correct  and  im- 
prove the  text  of  the  Roman  and  Greek 
classics, — and  most  renowned  among  these, 
were  the  Scaligers  of  Leyden,  Casaubon  of 
Geneva,    Paulus    and    Aldus    MaHutius,    and 


204  HISTORY  AND 

Sigonius  of  Italy,  Muretus  of  Paris,  Osorius  of 
Portugal,  and  Sanchez  and  Alvarez  of  Spain. 

In  England,  Sir  Henry  Saville,  and  Camden, 
the  author  of  the  Brittania^  worthily  main- 
tained the  English  reputation  for  classical 
scholarship ;  and  Andrew  Melville,  the  princi- 
pal of  the  University  of  Glasgow,  commenced, 
in  1575,  a  thorough  reform  of  that  university, 
which,  in  a  few  years,  drew  students  thither 
from  all  parts  of  Europe. 

The  works  of  Rabelais,  and  the  essays  of 
Michel  de  Montaigne,  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  in  molding  the  plans  of  education 
of  the  succeeding  age ;  and  Peter  Ramus 
assaulted,  with  great  vigor  and  effect,  the 
Aristotelian  philosophy.  The  principles  of 
the  higher  mathematics,  though  partially  dis- 
covered in  the  previous  century,  were  first 
rendered  generally  available  by  Tartaglia, 
Cardan,  Vieta,  and  perhaps  also  Pelletier  and 
Bombelli,  in  algebraic  science ;  Commandin, 
Clavius,  and  Maurolycus  of  Messina,  in  geom- 
etry ;  and  Joachim  Rhoeticus,  in  trigonometry. 
^   The  Copernican  theory,  though  far  from  being 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         205 

generally  received,  yet  numbered  among  its 
advocates  Rhoeticus,  Reinold,  Eothman,  Chris- 
tian Wursticius,  Maestlin,  and  the  English 
philosophers  Wright  and  Gilbert,  as  well  as 
the  far  more  illustrious  names  of  Benedetti 
and  Galileo.  Meanwhile,  the  Danish  astrono- 
mer Tycho-Brahe  was  astonishing  the  world 
by  his  astronomical  discoveries,  and  the  bold- 
ness and  daring  of  his  theories;  and  Kepler 
was  beginning  those  researches  which  have 
made  his  name  immortal. 

Physical  science  was  more  carefully  and 
extensively  cultivated ;  the  laws  of  optics  and 
mechanics  were  unfolded  by  Maurolycus,  Bap- 
tista  Porta,  Guido  Ubaldi,  Peruzzi,  Albrecht 
Durer,  and  others  ;  those  of  statics  and  hydro- 
statics, by  Galileo  and  Stevinus ;  while  Gilbert 
described  the  use  of  the  magnet.  In  zoology, 
Conrad  Gesner,  the  most  universally  learned 
man  of  his  time,  Belon,  Rondelet,  Aldrovandus, 
and  Salviani  were  reducing  the  chaos  of  earlier 
writers  to  order,  and  adding  new  genera  and 
species, — the  results  of  the  descriptions  and 
collections  of  the  American  adventurers ;  and 


206  HISTORY  AND 

in  botany,  Maranta,  Turner,  Lobel,  Clusius, 
Caesalpin,  Gesner,  Dodoens,  Dalechampe,  Bar- 
bier,  and  Gerard  were  engaged  in  a  similar 
work.  Of  these  last,  Clusius  was  by  far  the 
ablest,  and  has  left  his  impress  upon  the 
science. 

In  geography,  the  expeditions  to  America 
had  given  a  new  impulse  to  authorship.  Maps 
began  to  come  into  more  general  use,  and  one 
hundred  and  fifty  treatises  on  geography  were 
published  in  the  last  half  of  the  century. 
Ramusio,  Ortelius,  Botero,  and  Mercator  are 
all  names  which  have  come  down  to  our  own 
time.  It  was  partly,  no  doubt,  owing  to  the 
rapid  progress  of  discovery,  that  greater  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  philology,  and  that  the  Ori- 
ental tongues,  as  well  as  the  languages  of  the 
tribes  that  inhabited  the  new  continent,  began 
to  be  the  objects  of  study. 

The  seventeenth  century,  though  beginning 
with  extensive  and  protracted  civil  wars, 
which  broke  up  the  schools,  and  reduced  the 
people  to  poverty,  misery,  and  semi-barbarism, 
\^^a s  yet  isignalijjed . .  by^;  the  overthrow  of  old 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         207 

methods  of  instruction, — especially  in  the 
matter  of  memorizing  all  lessons,  without 
regard  to  their  meaning,  a  practice  which  had 
come  down  from  the  monastic  schools  of  the 
earlier  ages. 

A  great  evil  in  the  classical  schools  of  the 
previous  century,  had  been  the  lack  of  good 
dictionaries  and  grammars.  This  lack  had 
been,  in  a  good  degree,  supplied  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  by  the  The- 
saurus of  Stephens,  the  new  editions  of  Con- 
stantin  and  Calepin,  and  the  abridgment  of 
Scapula ;  and  the  grammars  of  Ramus,  Sylbur- 
gius,  Caninius,  and  Michael  Neander; — and 
with  these,  and  other  improved  text-books, 
the  desire  began  to  manifest  itself  for  im- 
proved methods  of  teaching. 

Wolfgang  Ratich  (1571-1635)  was  the  first 
to  assail  the  old  system  and  propose  new  plans 
of  instruction ;  but,  though  a  man  of  learning, 
he  was  too  conceited  and  willful,  and  his  plans 
were  too  revolutionary  and  impracticable  to 
meet  with  any  considerable  success.  He  was 
better,  qualified  , to  pull  down,  thaai.  to  build 


208  HISTOEY  AND 

Tip.  His  extravagant  promises  contrasted  so 
strongly  with  his  meager  results,  that  even  his 
well-wishers  came  to  regard  him  as  almost  a 
charlatan.  He  required  the  teacher  to  read 
over  the  same  lessons  to  the  child  again  and 
again,  explaining  and  analyzing  every  sen- 
tence with  care ;  while  the  child  must  sit  still, 
and  listen  in  silence, — and  this,  whether  the 
lesson  were  a  translation,  or  a  chapter  of  some 
scientific  text-book.  In  the  study  of  Terence, 
for  example,  each  section  was  to  be  read  over 
by  the  teacher  to  his  pupils  nine  times,  three 
times  in  German  and  six  in  Latin.  In  the 
hands  of  Kromayer,  Helwig,  and  some  of  his 
other  followers,  who  modified  his  plans,  and 
made  them  more  practical,  the  system  of 
Ratich  attained  to  a  moderate  degree  of 
success. 

The  most  eminent  educator  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  however,  was  John  Amos 
CoMENius,  bishop  of  Comna,  in  Moravia  (1592 
-1671).  Comenius  saw,  more  clearly  than  any 
of  his  predecessors,  what  was  necessary  for  the 
improvement  of  education ;  a>nd  his  books  and 


PROGKESS  OF  EDUCATION.  209 

principles  have  exerted  a  powerful  influence 
over  the  educational  progress  of  Central  and 
Northern  Europe,  even  to  the  present  day. 
He  was  the  first  to  understand  the  importance 
of  applying  the  inductive  system  of  Lord 
Bacon  to  instruction,  and  also  the  first  to 
apply  pictures  to  the  illustration  of  school 
studies. 

His  first  work,  Janua  Linguarum  Reserata^ 
was  an  attempt  to  teach  Latin  (and  was 
equally  applicable  to  other  languages),  by 
means  of  sentences  and  paragraphs,  containing 
instruction  in  the  elements  of  all  the  sciences, 
each  sentence  containing  Latin  words  in  gen- 
eral use,  and  these  words  not  being  repeated, 
except  when  used  in  a  different  sense.  It 
contained  one  hundred  chapters  and  one  thou- 
sand sentences,  and  thus  taught  about  eight 
thousand  words. 

He  begins  with  a  prefatory  chapter,  explain- 
ing his  object  and  design ;  the  second  chapter 
treats  of  the  creation  of  the  world ;  and. in  the 
chapters  following,  history,  arts,  and  sciences 
are  discussed,  the  ninety-ninth  chapter  termir 


210  HISTOKY  AND 

nating  with  the  end  of  the  world,  and  the  one- 
hundredth  giving  his  farewell  advice  to  the 
reader.  This  was  first  published  in  1631,  but 
was  subsequently  much  enlarged;  and,  follow- 
ing out  his  original  conceit,  he  prepared  a 
Vestibulum^  of  fifty  chapters  and  five  hundred 
sentences,  for  the  use  of  younger  scholars,  to 
precede  it,  and  an  Atrium^  of  one  hundred 
chapters  and  one  thousand  sentences,  to  fol- 
low it. 

The  Janua  was  translated  into  twelve  Eu- 
ropean and  several  Asiatic  languages,  and 
enjoyed  a  high  popularity.  His  Orhis  Sen- 
sualium  Pidus^  published  in  1657,  enjoyed  a 
still  higher  renown.  The  text  was  much  the 
same  with  the  Janua^  being  intended  as  a  kind 
of  elementary  encyclopedia ;  but  it  differed 
from  all  previous  school-books,  in  being  illus- 
trated with  pictures,  on  copper  and  wood,  of 
the  various  topics  discussed  in  it.  This  book 
was  universally  popular.  In  those  portions  of 
Germany  where  the  schools  had  been  broken 
up  by  the  ''  Thirty  years'  war,"  mothers  taught 
their  children  from  its  pages.     Corrected  and 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         211 

amended  by  later  editors,  it  continued,  for 
nearly  two  hundred  years,  to  be  a  text-book 
of  the  German  schools. 

His  Methodus  Novissima  is  also  a  work  of 
great  value  to  teachers.  It  is  needless,  per- 
haps, to  say  that,  at  the  present  day,  Comenius' 
method  of  teaching  languages  has  been  aban- 
doned, and  wiser  counsels  adopted ;  but  his 
system  was  a  great  advance  upon  that  of 
Ratich,  and  a  still  greater  upon  that  of  the 
teachers  of  the  previous  century.  He  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  fully  appreciated  by 
later  English  writers,  though,  during  his  life- 
time, he  was  repeatedly  solicited,  by  the 
highest  authorities,  to  make  England  his  home, 
and  to  undertake  the  reformation  of  her 
schools. 


CHAPTEE   XVIII. 

The  Jansenists,  and  their  labors  in  the  cause  of  education. — Eminent 
classical  scholars  of  the  seventeenth  century. — Progress  of  literature 
in  Europe  during  the  century. — The  School  of  Pietists. — Eenelon. 
— His  Adventures  of  Telemaclius. — Spener. — The  University  of  Halle. 
— Francke. — His  philanthropic  zeal. — The  orphan  school,  and  the 
institutions  connected  with  it. — Want  of  classic  training,  a  defect  in 
these  schools. — Tendency  to  Phariseeism  subsequently  developed. 

The  efforts  of  the  Jansenists  for  the  promo- 
tion of  education,  during  the  seventeenth 
century,  deserve  to  be  recorded.  Jansenius 
was  himself  a  successful  teacher ;  but  the 
eminent  men  whose  defence  of  his  Augustinus 
led  them  to  be  called  by  his  name,  contended, 
from  the  shades  of  Port-Royal,  with  their 
formidable  enemies,  the  Jesuits,  in  the  cause  of, 
education,  with  an  ability  which  deserved, 
though  it  did  not  attain,  success.  Antoine 
Arnauld,  himself  almost  a  prodigy  of  learning, 
found  time,  amid  his  other  multifarious  labors, 
to  reorganize,  on  a  plan  of  greater  efficiency, 
and  with  a  higher  moral  tone,  several  schools, 


214  HISTORY  AND 

which  attained  a  high  reputation;  and  also, 
aided  by  some  of  his  friends  and  pupils,  to 
prepare  several  very  good  school-books.  The 
Port-Royal  Grammar,  the  joint  work  of  himself 
and  Lancelot,  was  a  popular  text-book  for 
more  than  a  century.  De  Sacy,  a  nephew  of 
Arnauld,  was  also  eminent  as  a  linguist. 

Among  the  Jesuits,  Viger  and  Labbe  wrote, 
in  the  early  part  of  the  century,  treatises  of 
considerable  merit  on  Greek  grammar.  Casau- 
bon  of  Geneva,  who,  in  1610,  emigrated  to 
England,  stood  pre-eminent  in  critical  Greek 
learning.  In  Latin,  Salmasius,  a  native  of 
France,  but,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  a 
resident  of  Ley  den,  had  no  superior;  and  after 
his  death,  the  palm  on  the  continent  seemed 
to  rest  with  the  two  Gronovii,  father  and  son, 
,and  Graevius,  all  residents  of  Holland. 

In  England,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  century, 
we  find  the  great  name  of  Bentley,  whose 
learning  has  hardly  been  surpassed  since  the 
century  he  adorned.  Other  names  of  eminent 
Latin  scholars,  some  of  whom  did  good  service 
also  in  the  cause  of  education,   will   readily 


FKOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  215 

recur  to  the  reader.  Gruter,  Heinsius,  Grotius, 
Barthius,  Rigault,  Scioppius,  Vossius,  and 
Charles  Boyle  were,  perhaps,  the  most  distin- 
guished. Few  wrote  Latin,  either  in  prose  or 
poetry,  with  greater  elegance  and  force  than 
John  Milton. 

The  series  of  classics  prepared  by  about 
forty  of  the  most  eminent  scholars  of  France, 
at  the  direction  of  Louis  XIV.,  in  usum  Del- 
pMn%  possessed  sufficient  merit  to  be  retained 
as  classical  text-books  for  more  than  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  years.  In  general  literature, 
the  seventeenth  century  was  remarkable,  above 
any  that  had  proceded  it,  for  the  number  of  its 
eminent  writers. 

In  England,  the  great  names  of  Shakspeare 
and  Milton  tower  above  those  of  any  of  their 
predecessors  or  cotemporaries  ;  while  those 
who,  in  any  previous  period,  would  have  been 
considered  as  occupying  the  first  rank,  may  be 
numbered  by  scores :  in  France,  Corneille, 
Balzac,  Voiture,  Malherbe,  Racine,  Moliere, 
Boileau,  La  Fontaine,  Fontenelle,  and  many 
others  rendered   the    court   of   the    ^'  Grand 


216  IlISTOEY  AND 

Monarqu^''  the  home  oi  helles-lettres  *  in  Spain, 
Cervantes,  Lopez  de  Vega,  Calderon,  the  Ar- 
gensolas,  Villegas,  and  Gongora  abundantly 
vindicated  the  richness  and  beauty  of  the 
Castilian  tongue  ;  in  Italy,  Salvator  Rosa, 
Guidi,  Filicaja,  Marini,  Tassoni,  and  Bonarelli 
attained  high  distinction ;  and  the  works  of 
Opitz,  in  Germany,  and  Hooft,  in  Holland,  are 
still  read  with  pleasure.  Nor  was  the  period 
less  remarkable  for  its  philosophers. 

No  one  century,  since  the  Christian  era,  has 
produced  four  such  men  as  Lord  Bacon,  Des- 
cartes, Locke,  and  Spinosa ;  nor  perhaps  even 
the  equals  of  Arnauld,  Gassendi,  Malebranche, 
Hobbes  of  Malmesbury,  and  Lord  Herbert  of 
Cherbury. 

Physical  science  had  received  a  new  impulse 
from  the  application  to  it  of  the  inductive 
method;  and  jurisprudence,  which  had  made 
but  small  progress  since  the  promulgation  of 
the  Code  Justinian,  and  the  Capitularies  of 
Charlemagne,  seemed  suddenly  transformed 
into  a  new  science,  through  the  labors  of  Gro- 
tius,  Suarez,  Puffendorf,  Locke,  Leibnitz,  and 


PROGKESS   OF  EDUCATION.  217 

Godefroy.  All  this  progress  exerted  its  influ- 
ence upon  the  promotion  of  education.  The 
universal  activity  •«£  intellect  stimulated  to 
higher  attainment,  and  to  better  methods  of 
instruction. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  century,  several 
men  of  France,  Germany,  and  England,  became 
deeply  interested  in  the  promotion  of  educa- 
tion ;  and,  from  the  general  similarity  of  their 
views  and  aims,  writers  on  education  have 
usually  classed  them  together  as  the  School  of 
Pietists,  In  the  loftiness  of  their  ideas,  the 
purity  of  their  lives,  and  the  benevolence  of 
their  labors,  they  remain,  to  this  day,  unsur- 
passed. Prominent  among  them  were  Fene- 
lon,  archbishop  of  Cambray,  in  France  ;  Philip 
J.  Spener,  and  Augustus  Hermann  Francke,  of 
Germany. 

Fenelon  (1651-1715),  while  yet  young, 
wrote  a  treatise  on  the  education  of  girls, 
which  remains,  to  this  day,  a  work  of  standard 
value  in  France.  Subsequently  appointed 
tutor  of  the  grandsons  of  Louis  XIV.,  one  of 
whom  was  the  heir-apparent  to  the  throne,  he 

10 


218  HISTORY  AND 

displayed  a  skill,  seldom  equaled,  in  their 
training,  and  wrote  for  them  some  valuable 
works  as  text-books,  the  most  celebrated  of 
which,  his  Adventures  of  Telemachus^  will 
always  be  a  classic,  for  the  purity  and  beauty 
of  its  style,  and  its  elevated  moral  tone.  His 
''i^a&Ze^,"  and  his  ''''Dialogues  of  the  Dead^^^ 
have  also  enjoyed  a  high  reputation.  Aside 
from  these  labors,  he  was  persuaded,  by  Ma- 
dame de  Maintenon,  to  draw  up  a  system  of 
education  for  her  favorite  female  school  of 
Saint  Cyr. 

Spener  (1635-1705)  founded  the  University 
of  Halle,  and  was  for  a  time  the  tutor  of  the 
two  sons  of  the  Prince  of  Birkenfeld, — beyond 
which  he  did  little  directly  in  the  way  of 
teaching  ;  but  he  was  the  founder,  among 
Protestants,  of  the  sect  of  Pietists,  and  the 
friend  and  adviser  of  Francke,  between  whom 
and  himself  there  existed  the  most  cordial 
sympathy. 

Francke  (1663-1727)  was  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  men  of  modern  times,  not  so  much 
for  his  talents— which,  however,  were  respect- 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  219 

able — ^as  for  his  simple,  earnest  faith,  and  his 
entire  devotion  to  the  moral  and  religious 
education  of  the  young.  Chosen  professor  in 
the  new  University  of  Halle,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  pastor  of  one  of  the  poorest  suburbs  of 
that  city,  he  soon  resigned  his  professorship, 
and,  though  entirely  destitute  of  property, 
devoted  himself  to  the  improvement  of  the 
intellectual  and  spiritual  condition  of  the  poor. 
With  a  capital  of  only  seven  florins,  he  com- 
menced his  school  for  orphans,  in  1694; 
and  though  straitened  for  means,  he  struggled 
on,  till  oftentimes,  as  he  believed,  in  answer 
to  his  prayers,  the  necessary  funds  were  sent 
to  him. 

In  1705,  his  orphan  house  had  one  hundred 
boys  and  twenty-five  girls  under  tuition;  his 
seminary  for  teachers,  who  received  their 
board  free,  had  seventy-five  pupils, — besides 
which,  sixty-four  very  poor  scholars  were 
supported;  a  school  for  the  children  of  citi- 
}  zens  had  eight  hundred  scholars  and  sixty- 
seven  teachers;  a  Pcedagogium^  or  school  for 
the    children   of   the    nobility,   had    seventy 


220  HISTORY  AND 

pupils ;  the  Oriental  College,  intended  for  the 
training  of  missionaries  to  India,  eleven  pupils ; 
a  widows'  house,  four  widows;  and  a  book- 
store, printing-office,  and  apothecary's  shop 
employed  in  all  twenty-two  persons.  Twenty- 
two  years  later,  there  were  more  than  twenty- 
five  hundred  persons — pupils,  teachers,  em- 
ployes, and  pensioners — ^in  his  various  estab- 
lishments. 

His  seminary  for  teachers  was  probably  the 
first  distinct  Normal  school  ever  established. 
His  orphan  school,  though  perhaps  not  the 
first,  for  one  at  Rome  claims  an  earlier  date, 
was  yet  the  most  successful,  and  the  model  of 
most  which  have  since  been  established.  His 
instruction,  though  thorough  in  the  studies 
undertaken,  gave  more  predominance  to  moral 
culture,  and  to  physical  science,  than  to  the 
ancient  classics.  Latin  was  carefully  and  well 
taught ;  but  in  Greek,  the  New  Testament  was 
the  only  text-book;  and  Hebrew  was  one  of 
the  studies  of  the  regular  course. 

The  deportment  of  his  students,  serious, 
grave,  and  temperate,  was  in  marked,  perhaps 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         221 

too  marked,  contrast  with  that  of  the  students 
of  the  other  German  gymnasia  and  univer- 
sities. The  necessity  of  a  change  of  heart, 
upon  which  he  insisted,  for  successful  scholar- 
ship, though  resulting,  on  his  part,  from  his 
deep  religious  convictions,  yet  led,  in  the 
course  of  time,  to  a  degree  of  Phariseeism 
and  hypocrisy  which,  for  some  years,  greatly 
injured  the  reputation  of  his  schools  ;  but 
important  reforms  and  a  more  liberal  course 
of  education  have,  of  late  years,  restored  to 
them  their  ancient  renown.  In  his  seminary 
for  teachers,  in  his  strictly  moral  and  religious 
instruction,  in  the  general  arrangements  and 
classification  of  his  schools,  and  in  his  school- 
houses — well  located,  well  ventilated,  spacious, 
and  convenient — he  certainly  conferred  as 
great  services  on  the  cause  of  education  as 
any  man  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Among  his  collaborators,  several  attained  a 
high  reputation;  especially  Rambach,  author 
of  a  treatise  on  pedagogy,  entitled  '^  The  Well- 
instructed  Teacher ;"  Freyer,  whose  classical 
works  are  still  in  use  in  Germany ;  Sarganeck, 


222  HISTOKY  OF  EDUCATION. 

author  of  a  work  on  school  vices ;  Hoffmann, 
author  of  treatises  on  natural  history  for 
schools  ;  Busching,  equally  celebrated  as  a 
teacher  and  pedagogical  writer ;  and  Stein- 
metz,  who  attained  renown  both  as  a  teacher 
and  preacher. 


CHAPTEE   XIX.  • 

Progress  of  education  in  the  New  England  colonies,  m  the  seventeenti 
century. — Legal  provision  for  the  establishment  of  schools  and 
colleges  in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut. — Legislation  of  New 
York  for  the  same  end. — Other  colonies. — Scotland  the  first  country 
in  Europe  to  establish  a  system  of  common  schools. — ^De  la  Salle 
and  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools. — Statistics  of  these 
schools  in  1856. 

While  the  efforts  of  these  and  other  emi- 
nent teachers  in  Europe,  were  directed  to  the 
improvement  of  education  in  their  respective 
countries,  the  colonies  which,  in  1620  and  the 
twenty-five  years  succeeding,  had  left  Eng- 
land and  planted  themselves  on  the  rugged 
shores  of  New  England,  had  brought  with 
them  not  only  the  manners,  customs,  and 
culture  of  their  native  land,  but  the  deter- 
mination to  rear  here  educational  institutions 
which  should  prevent  their  descendants  from 
subsiding  into  barbarism. 

Ere  their  own  dwellings  were  so  far  com- 
pleted as  to  protect  them  from  the  inclemency 


224  HISTORY  AND 

of  the  climate,  they  reared  the  church  edifice, 
and  close  by  its  side  the  school-house,  where 
often,  especially  in  the  earlier  days  of  the 
colonies,  men  taught  the  alphabet  and  the 
rudiments  of  learning,  whose  talents  and 
attainments  would  have  qualified  them  to  fill 
the  highest  chair  in  any  university  in  Europe. 
Legal  provision  was  made,  in  Massachusetts 
and  Connecticut,  for  the  elementary  instruction 
of  all  the  children  of  each  colony,  many  years 
before  any  such  enactment  had  been  thought 
of  by  any  State  in  Europe,  y^  As  early  as  1635, 
the  formation  of  free  schools  was  recognized 
by  law  in  Massachusetts  ;  in  1642,  it  was 
ordered,  by  the  General  Assembly,  that  every 
village,  containing  fifty  families,  should  main- 
tain a  school,  in  which  reading  and  writing 
should  be  taught ;  and  that  every  township 
or  district,  containing  one  hundred  families, 
should  support  a  grammar-school — i.  e.,  a 
school  where  Latin  and  Greek  should  be 
taught.  Nor  was  Connecticut  behind  her  sister 
colony  in  her  zeal  for  public  and  universal 
education:  in  1639,  a  school  supported  by  tax 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  225 

existed  in  Hartford,  and  another  in  New 
Haven;  and  the  code  of  1650,  the  first  com- 
pilation of  the  laws  of  the  Connecticut  com- 
monwealth, required  parents  and  guardians  to 
cause  their  children  to  be  taught  to  read,  and 
to  learn  the  catechism,  ''under  a  penalty  of 
twenty  shillings  for  each  neglect  therein ;''  and 
authorized  the  selectmen,  after  admonition,  to 
take  children  who  were  uninstructed,  from 
their  parents  and  guardians,  and  place  them 
in  school. 

The  same  code  provided,  as  in  Massachu- 
setts, for  the  establishment  of  a  school  for 
every  fifty  householders,  and  a  grammar-school 
for  every  hundred  householders.  In  the  col- 
ony of  New  Haven,  which,  until  1665,  main- 
tained a  separate  existence,  similar  enactments 
were  made,  about  the  same  period.  Nor  were 
these  colonies  unmindful  of  a  higher  intellect- 
ual culture.  In  1636,  the  colony  of  Massachu- 
setts appropriated  J6400  for  the  founding  of  a 
college,  to  which  John  Harvard,  who  died  in 
1638,  added  about  £800  more,  and  thus 
secured    the    establishment,   within   eighteen 

10* 


226  HISTORY  AND 

years  after  the  first  settlers  landed  upon  Plym- 
outh Rock,  of  a  college  whose  reputation  has 
constantly  increased  from  that  day  to  this.  In 
the  support  of  this  seat  of  learning,  the  Plym- 
outh, Connecticut,  and  New  Haven  colonies  all 
contributed  according  to  their  ability. 

In  1700,  though  impoverished  by  repeated 
Indian  wars,  the  colonies  of  Connecticut  and 
New  Haven,  at  this  time  united  under  a  single 
government,  considering  the  interests  of  edu- 
cation and  religion  as  requiring  the  founding 
of  another  college,  determined  upon  establish- 
ing one  at  Saybrook  (subsequently  removed 
to  New  Haven),  and  granted  it,  from  the 
colonial  treasury,  an  annuity  of  £G0  sterling. 

In  the  other  English  colonies,  the  progress 
of  education  was  less  rapid.  Schools  were 
established,  for  those  who  had  the  means  to 
pay  for  tuition,  in  New  Amsterdam  (New 
York),  under  the  Dutch  administration,  in 
1633,  and  at  Beaverwyck  (Albany),  in  1642; 
and  the  Dutch  West  India  Company  subse- 
quently sent  out,  from  Holland,  teachers  for 
all  the  settlements. 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         22Y 

In  1687,  a  Latin  school  was  opened,  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  under  the  sanction  of  the 
English  government ;  but  the  colonial  govern- 
ment did  not  provide  for  education  till  1702, 
when  a  grammar-school  was  established,  by 
the  legislature,  and  £50  per  annum  appropri- 
ated, for  seven  years,  for  the  support  of  a 
teacher.  In  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  the 
Carolinas,  but  little  was  done,  during  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  for  education.  A  few 
schools  were  established  for  the  children  of 
the  wealthier  planters,  but  no  general  system 
of  instruction  prevailed. 

The  first  country  in  Europe  to  establish  a 
complete  system  of  parish-schools,  for  the 
instruction  of  all  the  children  of  the  country, 
was  Scotland,  By  an  enactment,  in  1696,  it 
was  provided  that  every  parish  should  main- 
tain a  school,  with  a  male  teacher,  for  whom 
the  landholders  should  erect  a  school-house 
and  a  dwelling.  It  has  resulted  from  this 
enactment  that,  at  this  day,  the  people  of 
Scotland,  of  all  classes,  are  more  intelligent 
and  better  educated  than  those  of  any  other 


228  HISTORY  AND 

country  of  Europe,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  Prussia. 

Before  closing  our  account  of  education  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  we  must  say  a  few 
words  of  the  order  of  Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools^  founded  by  Jean  Baptist  de  la  Salle, 
at  Rheims  in  1679,  and  at  Paris  in  1688, 
though  not  attaining  to  any  considerable  dis* 
tinction  until  the  earlier  years  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  De  la  Salle  was  a  philanthro- 
pist, in  the  best  sense  of  that  term.  Deeply 
impressed  with  the  necessity  of  bestowing  a 
better  education  on  the  children  of  the  poorer 
classes,  he  devoted  his  patrimony  and  his 
entire  life  and  labors  to  the  work,  and  organ- 
ized this  order,  as  the  best  method,  in  his 
judgment,  of  promoting  an  object  he  had  so 
much  at  heart. 

Before  intrusting  the  Brothers  with  the 
charge  of  schools,  they  were  required  to  pass 
through  a  novitiate,  somewhat  like  the  normal 
schools  of  more  modern  times.  At  first,  he 
required  that  their  instruction  should  be  gratu- 
itous; but  subsequently,  the  members  of  the 


PEOGEESS   OF  EDUCATION.  229 

order  were  so  much  in  demand,  as  teachers, 
that  they  were  allowed  to  receive  salaries, 
accounting  for  all  their  receipts,  except  their 
frugal  fare,  to  their  superiors  in  the  order. 
The  members  of  this  order  form  the  largest 
proportion  of  the  professional  teachers  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  In  1856,  they  re- 
ported eight  hundred  and  seventy-one  schools, 
attended  by  about  three  hundred  thousand 
children. 


CHAPTER   XX. 

Xne  Humanists,  and  their  system  of  instruction. — Eminent  Humanist 
teachers. — J.  J.  Eousseau. — Influence  of  his  '•''  EmiW^  upon  edu- 
cation.— John  Locke. — John  B.  Basedow. — His  early  career. — The 
^^Mementar-lVer^.^^ — The  Fhilanthropinum.— Small  success  of  his 
personal  teachings. — The  impulse  given  to  education  by  his  efforts. 
—  Wdlke  and  the  other  successors  of  Basedow. — Count  Zinzendorf. 
— Humanitarian  institutions  devoted  to  the  education  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  the  blind,  juvenile  offenders,  &c. — Special  schools  of 
commerce,  &c. — Eminent  German  writers  on  education. 

Somewhat  later  in  date,  though  in  part 
cotemporaneo^s  with  the  pietistic  school  of 
teachers,  were  the  Humanists^  so  named  be- 
cause they,  in  opposition  to  the  Pietists,  in- 
sisted upon  a  more  thorough  classical  culture, 
the  study  of  the  humanities^  as  the  instruction 
in  the  classics  was  termed.  Cellarius,  one  of 
the  most  eminent  of  these  teachers,  whose 
contributions  to  school  literature,  in  the  way 
of  Latin  and  Greek  text-books,  are  worthy  of 
record,  was  the  cotemporary  of  Spener  and 
Francke;  J.  M.  Gesner  (1691-1761),  professor 
successively  at  Weimar,   Jena,    Leipsic,   and 


'2S2  HISTORY  AND 

Gottingen,  founder  of  the  pedagogical  semi- 
nary at  Gottingen,  and  author  of  more  than 
thirty  educational  works,  was  not  only  a  man 
of  almost  universal  scholarship,  but  also  a  wise 
and  judicious  teacher;  Ernesti  (1733-1801), 
nearly  as  profound  in  attainments,  lived  almost 
wholly  in  antiquity,  and,  by  his  zeal  in  anti- 
quarian investigation,  exerted  a  powerful  in- 
fluence on  his  pupils. 

Heyne  (1729-1812),  perhaps  the.  finest 
classical  scholar  of  modern  times,  by  his  excel- 
lent editions  of  the  classics,  by  his  direction  of 
the  School  of  Ilefeld,  and  finally  by  his  labors 
in  the  University  of  Gottingen,  where  some  of 
the  most  profound  linguists  of  the  age  were 
educated,  exerted  a  beneficial  influence  upon 
thousands  of  the  youth  of  Germany.  Jacobs 
and  Creuzer,  although  following  in  the  same 
course,  belong  rather  to  the  present  than  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  will  be  noticed  further 
on.  Meantime,  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  (1712 
-1778),  a  man  who,  if  his  own  confessions  may 
be  believed,  was  any  thing  but  exemplary  in 
his  character,  had,  by  his  pedagogical  works, 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         233 

opened  the  way  for  the  establishment  of  a  new 
system  of  teaching,  which,  for  many  years, 
exerted  a  powerful  influence  in  Germany. 

The  Emile  of  Rousseau,  the  work  of  a  man 
who  had  never  taught,  and  of  a  father  who 
had  sent  his  own  children,  at  birth,  to  the 
Foundling  Hospital,  contained  some  pedagogi- 
cal truth,  mixed  with  much  of  sophistry,  false- 
hood, and  immorality.  Its  pretence  of  follow- 
ing nature  awakened  the  minds  of  some  better 
men  to  a  consideration  of  the  natural  methods 
of  instruction. 

The  educational  works  of  John  Locke,  to 
whom  we  have  already  referred,  also  exerted 
some  influence  in  turning  the  attention  of 
teachers  to  nature,  as  a  safe  guide  in  the 
matter  of  education.  Locke,  like  Rousseau, 
was  a  theorist;  but,  unlike  him,  his  instincts 
and  sympathies  were  on  the  side  of  morality 
and  virtue. 

John  Bernhard  Basedow  (1723-1790),  a 
man  of  but  limited  education  and  little  refine- 
ment, yet  energetic,  bold,  self-reliant,  and  of 
great  firmness  and  perseverance,  after  a  some- 


234  HISTORY  AND 

what  singular  career,  in  which  he  had  been 
almost  constantly  engaged  in  theological  con- 
troversies, published  in  1768,  in  his  forty-fifth 
year,  a  prospectus  of  an  '^  Elementary  Book  of 
Human  Knowledge."  Assisted  by  an  allow- 
ance from  the  Danish  minister,  BernstorfF,  he 
devoted  the  next  six  years  to  its  preparation. 
It  was  published  in  1774,  in  four  volumes, 
with  one  hundred  plates.  Its  plan  contem- 
plated, —  1.  Elementary  instruction  in  the 
knowledge  of  words  and  things ;  2.  A  method 
of  teaching  children  to  read,  without  weariness 
or  loss  of  time ;  3.  Natural  knowledge ;  4. 
Knowledge  of  morals,  the  mind,  and  reason- 
ing ;  5.  Natural  religion ;  6.  A  knowledge  of 
social  duties,  commerce,  &c.  Covering  nearly 
the  same  ground  with  the  celebrated  work  of 
Comenius,  this  Elementar-Werh  might  well  be 
called  the  Orhis  Pidus  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. His  system  of  instruction  thus  published, 
he  was  soon  summoned  to  put  it  in  practice ; 
which  he  did,  at  Dessau,  by  the  aid  of  Prince 
Leopold  of  Anhalt-Dessau,  by  the  foundation 
of  his  Philanthropmum^  an  institution  in  which 


PKOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  235 

nature  was  to  be  followed  in  the  plan  of 
education.  All  nations  were  to  participate  in 
its  advantages,  on  equal  terms;  and  a  creed, 
so  general  that  even  deists  could  subscribe  to 
it,  was  to  take  the  place  of  religious  instruction. 

The  number  of  pupils,  at  first,  was  small, 
only  thirteen  being  in  attendance  at  the  end 
of  two  years.  In  1776,  Basedow  issued  a 
boastful  and  pompous  circular,  promising  the 
most  extraordinary  results  from  his  new 
method,  and  inviting  princes,  nobles,  and 
others  to  attend  his  examinations,  some  three 
months  later ;  the  reports  of  this  examination 
led  to  some  increase  of  pupils,  though  the 
number  was  never  very  great.  In  1778, 
Basedow  left  the  Philanthropinum,  and  Wolke, 
previously  his  assistant,  and  a  man  of  much 
greater  ability  than  Basedow,  became  the 
principal.  Basedow,  whose  latter  years  were 
clouded  by  intemperance  and  a  morose  tem- 
per, taught  privately  at  Dessau,  and  published 
some  of  his  later  pedagogical  works  there. 

The  Philanthropinum  flourished  for  a  while, 
under  the  care  of  Wolke  and  his  able  assist- 


236  HISTORY  AND 

ants,  Salzmann,  Campe,  and  others;  but  was 
finally  closed,  in  1793,  having,  however,  led 
to  the  institution  of  other  schools  on  the  same 
system,  in  Marschlius,  Switzerland,  and  in 
Hamburg,  St.  Petersburg,  Durkheim,  and 
Schnepfenthal.  The  last,  founded  by  Salz- 
mann, in  1784,  still  exists. 

Philanthropism,  as  the  theory  of  Basedow 
was  called,  though  an  imperfect  system  of 
education,  yet  accomplished  something  for  its 
improvement.  It  led  to  a  better  appreciation 
of  the  necessity  of  physical  training,  to  greater 
activity  of  the  reflective  faculties,  liberated  the 
reasoning  faculties  from  the  thraldom  of  the 
scholastic  philosophy,  and  abolished  the  terri- 
ble cruelties  of  the  old  school  discipline.  It 
prepared  the  way,  also,  for  other  and  better 
systems  of  instruction,  which  were  soon  to 
follow.  Many  of  its  teachers  distinguished 
themselves,  also,  by  their  writings  on  the 
subject  of  education.  Wolke,  Gutsmuth,  Salz- 
mann, Campe,  Rochow,  Becker,  Schweighau- 
ser,  and  Trapp  made  valuable  contributions  to 
the  school  literature  of  the  age. 


PEOGKESS  OF  EDUCATION.  237 

Another  zealous  and  efficient  patron  of 
education,  though  belonging  wholly  to  the 
eighteenth  century,  is  rather  to  be  ranked 
among  the  Pietists  than  the  Philanthropists  in 
his  principles — Count  Zinzendorf  (1700-1760), 
the  restorer  of  the  sect  of  Moravians^  a  pupil 
of  Francke,  established,  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica, numerous  schools,  modeled  after  those  at 
Halle ;  and,  through  the  impulse  which  he 
gave  to  education  among  his  followers,  led 
indirectly  to  the  founding  of  many  others, 
most  of  which  still  exist. 

The  strife  which  raged  between  the  Pietists, 
the  Humanists,  and  the  Philanthropists,  led 
many  eminent  friends  of  education  to  stand 
aloof  from  each  of  these  schools,  and  to  labor 
for  the  promotion  of  learning  on  wider  and 
less  exclusive  principles.  Some  of  these, 
impelled  by  a  truly  philanthropic  spirit,  sought 
out  classes  hitherto  neglected,  and  endeavored 
to  instruct  them :  such  was  the  origin  of  the 
efforts  for  the  instruction  of  deaf  mutes,  by 
Heinicke,  Braidwood,  the  Abbe  De  I'Epee,  and 
Sicard ;  the  instruction  of  the  blind,  by  Yalen- 


238  HISTORY  AND 

tin  Hauy,  Klein,  and  Zeune ;  the  establishment 
of  Sunday-schools  by  Vincent  de  Paul,  Robert 
Raikes,  Fox,  and  Oberlin ;  the  organization  of 
Reformatories  by  Odescalchi  and  Tata  Gio- 
vanni at  Rome,  and  the  Philanthropic  Society 
at  London. 

Such,  too,  was  the  origin  of  many  of  those 
special  schools  of  commerce,  agriculture, 
mines,  the  arts  of  design,  &c. 

Many  of  these  eclectic  teachers,  as  Fritz  and 
others  have  named  them,  have  also  contributed 
materially  to  the  advancement  of  education  by 
their  works.  In  Germany  particularly,  which, 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, was  the  theater  of  the  most  active  dis- 
cussion of  the  principles  of  education,  Sulzer^ 
author  of  a  work  ''  On  the  Education  of  Cliil- 
dren^''  and  a  ''''Resume  of  the  Sciences  j'^''  Miller^ 
whose  ^''Principles  of  a  Wise  and  Christian 
Instruction^^  and  ''^  Moral  Pictures'''  are  still 
popular ;  Boch^  and  Kant,  the  celebrated  phi- 
losopher, both  of  whom  wrote  manuals  of  ped- 
agogics ;  Weisse^  whose  ''''Friend  of  Children^'' 
is   still    a    favorite   with    both    children    and 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  239 

parents;  Ehlers^  whose  ''''  Directions  for  Princes 
and  the  Governors  of  Princes''''  show  a  profound 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  education ; 
Busch^  the  founder  of  the  first  school  of  com- 
merce, at  Hamburg,  in  1775,  and  a  thoroughly- 
practical  writer ;  Feder^  the  able  antagonist  of 
Rousseau,  and  author  of  the  New  Emile  ;  Rese- 
witz^  the  accomplished  director  of  the  Klos- 
terbergen  Gymnasium,  whose  ''  Educational 
Thoughts^  Projects^  and  Directions^''''  and  ''''Edu- 
cation of  the  Citizen^''''  contain  more  valuable 
thoughts  and  suggestions  for  the  teacher  than 
any  other  work  of  the  last  century;  Gurlitt^ 
the  distinguished  director  of  the  gymnasium  at 
Hamburg,  author  of  numerous  small  works  on 
education,  and  Roetger^  Heusinger^  A,  H,  Nie- 
meyer^  Schwartz^  and  Beneke — all  able  writers, 
but  belonging  rather  to  the  present  century 
than  the  last — have  furnished,  by  their  works, 
valuable  additions  both  to  the  theoretical  and 
practical  knowledge  of  the  art  of  instruction. 


CHAPTEE    XXI. 

Pestalozzi. — Alstract  of  his  views  on  education,  as  developed  in  his 
works.— Objections  to  some  of  his  positions. — His  own  imperfect 
Siiiccess  as  a  teacher. — Prevalence  of  the  Pestalozzian  system  at  the 
present  day. — Other  educational  reformers  cotemporary  with  Pesta- 
lozzi.— Fellenberg,  Jacotot,  Felbiger,  Father  Girard,  and  Lancaster. 
— Eeview  of  their  several  methods. — Adoption  of  the  method  of 
Sagan,  introduced  by  Felbiger,  in  Austria.— The  Lancasterian  sys- 
tem,— At  one  time  prevalent  in  England  and  America. — Its  defects, 
— The  labors  of  Oberlin,  the  brothers  Zeller,  Vehrli,  and  Wichern, 
in  promoting  education. — Cheering  prospects  of  the  future. 

The  man  who  has  exerted  the  most  influence 
over  the  education  of  the  race,  in  the  last  hun- 
dred years,  is  J.  H.  Pestalozzi  (1746-1827). 
Like  Basedow,  his  own  education  was  imper- 
fect and  one-sided ;  like  him,  he  had  read,  and 
was  greatly  impressed  by  Rousseau's  Emile  j 
like  him,  too,  he  was  visionary  and  extravagant 
in  his  hopes  and  expectations,  and  even  to  a 
much  greater  degree  than  Basedow  himself; 
but,  unlike  him,  he  was  a  man  of  warm  and 
loving  heart,  of  high  and  pure  aspirations,  and 

of  a  deeply  religious  spirit. 

11 


242  HISTOKY  AND 

His  life,  judged  as  men  ordinarily  jndge, 
was  a  series  of  failures;  he  lacked  practical 
talent  and  tact :  nothing  to  which  he  put  his 
hand  prospered,  or,  if  it  seemed  to  do  so  for 
a  time,  the  seeds  of  decay  and  destruction 
were  early  sown  in  it,  and  it  soon  went  to  ruin. 
None  felt  this  more,  or  were  more  deeply  hum- 
bled by  it,  than  himself;  yet,  with  all  this 
want  of  direct  success,  he  initiated  a  great  and 
successful  educational  movement,  which  is,  this 
day,  bearing  fruit  in  the  intellectual  culture 
and  advancement  of  millions. 

An  influence  so  extensive,  demands  from  us 
a  brief  examination  of  the  principles  on  which 
his  system  was  founded,  its  excellencies,  and 
defects.  His  fundamental  principle,  as  devel- 
oped in  his  ^''Leonard  and  Gertrude^''''  his 
^^How  Gertrude  teaches  her  Ghildi^en^^''  and  his 
^'^  Booh  for  Mothers^^^  was  that  education  should 
proceed  according  to  the  laws  of  nature ;  that 
it  was  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  assist  this,  by 
exciting  the  child  to  self-activity,  and  render- 
ing him  only  a  limited  degree  of  assistance  ; 
that  progress  should  be  slow  and  gradual,  bul 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  243 

uninterrupted,  never  passing  to  a  second  topic 
till  the  first  is  fully  understood ;  that  the  memo- 
ry and  the  understanding  should  not  be  unduly 
cultivated,  but  all  the  faculties  developed  in 
harmony ;  that  the  peculiarities  of  every  child 
and  of  each  sex  should  be  carefully  studied,  in 
order  to  adapt  instruction  to  them ;  that  the 
elements  of  all  knowledge  were  Form,  Number, 
and  Language,  and  that  these  elements  should 
be  taught  with  simplicity  and  thoroughness; 
that  the  art  of  observing  should  be  acquired, 
and  the  perceptive  faculties  well  developed ; 
that  every  topic  of  instruction  should  become 
an  exercise  for  the  reflective  powers ;  that 
mental  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  the  arts  of 
drawing  and  modeling  objects  of  beauty,  were 
all  important  exercises  for  training,  strength- 
ening, and  disciplining  the  mind ;  that  the 
laws  of  language  should  be  developed  from 
within,  and  the  exercises  in  it  made  not  only 
to  cultivate  the  intellect,  but  to  improve  the 
affections ;  that  vocal  music  should  be  taught 
in  schools,  not  by  rote,  but  by  a  careful  study 
of  the  elementary  principles  of  music ;  that  the 


244:  HISTORY  AND 

Socratic  method,  as  used  by  Basedow  and 
others,  was  objectionable,  and  that,  in  the 
early  stages  of  instruction,  dictation  by  the 
teacher  and  repetition  by  the  scholar  is  prefer- 
able, and,  at  a  more  advanced  stage,  the  giving 
out  problems  by  the  teacher,  to  be  solved  by 
the  pupil,  without  assistance ;  that  religious 
instruction  should  begin  with  the  mother,  that 
the  filial  feelings  of  the  child  should  be  first 
cultivated,  and  directed  toward  God,  and  that 
formal  religious  instruction  should  be  reserved 
to  a  later  period,  when  the  child  can  under- 
stand it ;  that  despotic  and  cruel  government 
in  schools  was  improper,  but  that  mutual  affec- 
tion between  teacher  and  pupil  was  a  better 
incitement  to  intellectual  activity  than  prizes, 
or  other  stimulants  to  emulation ;  and,  finally, 
that  the  exercise  of  the  senses  and  the  thor- 
ough cultivation  of  the  physical  powers,  were 
of  very  great  importance  to  the  complete 
development  of  the  child. 

Most  of  these  principles  were  excellent,  and 
many  of  them  greatly  in  advance  of  any  previ- 
ous system ;    but  the  practical  defects  were, 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  245 

that  though  the  intellect  was  quickened,  there 
was  too  little  positive  knowledge  communi- 
cated; that  excessive  attention  was  given  to 
mathematical  and  intuitive  studies,  to  the 
neglect  of  other  branches  of  knowledge ;  that 
simplification  was  carried  too  far,  and  con- 
tinued too  long ;  that  too  little  attention  was 
given  to  historical  truth,  and  to  testimony  as  a 
source  of  knowledge,  especially  in  matters  of 
religion ;  and  that  he  fell  too  much  into  Base- 
dow's error,  of  regarding  religious  knowledge 
as  innate. 

Pestalozzi's  principles  were,  however,  better 
than  his  practice,  and  in  other  hands  accom- 
plished more  than  in  his  own.  The  system  of 
instruction  which,  in  the  Prussian  schools,  has 
been  so  successful  in  the  intellectual  develop- 
ment of  the  nation,  is  based  on  that  of  Pesta- 
lozzi,  with  but  few  and  slight  modifications; 
and  in  England  and  our  own  country,  as  well 
as  in  the  North  of  Europe,  his  method  has 
exerted  a  more  powerful  influence  on  teachers 
than  any  other. 

Several   cotemporaries   of    Pestalozzi    have 


24:6  HISTORY  AND 

also  distinguished  themselves  by  systems  or 
methods  of  instruction,  which  have  exerted  a 
wide,  and,  in  some  countries,  a  controlling  in- 
fluence. Prominent  among  these,  are  Fellen- 
berg,  Jacototj  Felbiger,  Father  Girard,  and 
Lancaster. 

Fellenberg  (1771-1844)  was,  like  Pestalozzi, 
a  Swiss,  but,  unlike  him,  a  man  of  rank  and 
fortune.  He  devoted  himself  and  his  fortune 
to  the  establishment  of  an  institution  at  Hof- 
wyl,  a  few  miles  from  Berne,  which  comprised 
an  agricultural  institute,  theoretical  and  practi- 
cal ;  a  manufactory  of  agricultural  implements 
and  machines ;  a  rural  school  for  the  poor,  in 
which  they  were  taught  the  principles  of 
agriculture,  in  connection  with  other  studies ; 
a  superior  school,  for  the  education  of  the 
young  nobility  of  Germany ;  an  intermediate 
school,  for  the  training  of  the  middle  classes ; 
and  a  normal  school,  for  the  instruction  of  the 
teachers  of  the  canton.  His  system  was  in 
many  respects  analogous  to  that  of  Pestalozzi, 
but  was  preferable  to  it,  in  that  it  communi- 
cated  mare    positive    knowledge,    was    more 


PEOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         247 

practical  in  character,  maintained  a  more  just 
equipoise  of  the  faculties,  and  gave  more 
weight  to  historic  truth,  and  to  the  revelation 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  His  schools  were  dis- 
continued in  1848,  except  the  Poor-school,  the 
pupils  of  which  are  employed  in  practical 
agriculture  on  his  large  estate. 

Jacotot  (1770-1840)  was  a  native  of  France, 
educated  at  Dijon,  and  subsequently  a  professor 
in  the  University  of  Louvain.  His  method, 
which  has  been  very  generally  adopted  in 
Belgium,  and  to  some  extent  in  other  coun- 
tries, was  intended  to  give  more  exercise  to 
the  memorizing  faculty  than  the  Pestalozzian 
school  had  done.  He  required  his  pupils  to 
commit  all  the  lessons  to  memory,  whether  in 
the  languages  or  sciences,  and  the  teacher 
explained  briefly  any  difficulty ;  the  next  day 
they  were  to  repeat  the  same  lesson,  and  give 
an  explanation  of  it  themselves ; — this,  he 
contended,  gave  them  more  command  of  lan- 
guage, more  positive  knowledge,  and  greater 
power  of  using  it,  than  the  method  of  Pesta- 
lozzi. 


248  HISTORY  AND 

Felhiger^  an  Austrian  bishop  of  Sagan,  in 
Silesia,  and  subsequently  (not  far  from  1770) 
appointed  director-general  of  the  Austrian 
schools,  was  the  author  of  the  Method  of  Sagan^ 
named  in  honor  of  his  former  see.  Felbiger 
had,  previous  to  assuming  the  office  of  director- 
general,  traveled  extensively  over  Europe, 
investigating  the  different  systems  of  educa- 
tion, and  ascertaining  their  practical  value. 
On  his  return,  he  organized,  at  first  in  Silesia, 
and  afterward  in  other  parts  of  Austria,  normal 
schools,  and  primary  and  secondary  schools, 
and  procured  the  passage  of  a  law  requiring 
parents  to  send  their  children  to  school,  under 
the  penalty  of  fines  and  corporal  punishment. 

The  teachers  were  all  examined,  and  the 
schools  required  to  be  taught,  according  to 
the  Method  of  Sagan — a  combination  of  the 
methods  of  Basedow  and  Pestalozzi.  Every 
thing  taught  was  regarded  in  a  merely  practi- 
cal and  utilitarian  view ;  the  teacher  proceeded 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown  with  great 
rapidity,  and  it  was  to  be  his  aim  to  develop 
the  intelligence  rather  than  the  memory.     In- 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         249 

struction  was  given  on  the  simultaneous  sys- 
tem ;  the  classes  were  carefully  formed  with 
reference  to  the  progress  and  talents  of  the 
pupils  who  composed  them,  and  frequent 
examinations  tested  their  improvement. 

The  system,  though  faulty,  was  very  well 
adapted  for  schools  where  the  teachers  and 
scholars  were  regarded  as  mere  machines ;  and 
it  is  not  surprising  that  it  was  universally 
adopted  in  Austria.  In  Bohemia,  the  Method 
of  Sagan  was  also  propagated,  by  command  of 
Maria  Theresa,  by  the  zealous  labors  of  Kin- 
dermann  (de  Schulstein),  a  friend  and  co- 
worker with  Felbiger.  This  system  was  in 
vogue  throughout  the  Empire  of  Austria  until 
the  last  fifteen  years. 

Father  Girard  (1765-1850)  was  a  monk  of 
the  order  of  Cordeliers,  a  native  of  Fribourg, 
Switzerland,  a  man  of  a  catholic  and  liberal 
spirit,  and  earnestly  devoted  to  the  cause  of 
education.  He  established  a  school  at  Fri- 
bourg, in  which  he  adopted,  with  some  modi- 
fications, the  system  of  Pestalozzi,  upon  whose 

labors  he  had  been  called  by  the  government 

no 


250  HISTORY  AND 

to  make  an  examination  and  report.  He  re- 
garded the  practice  of  questioning  the  pupils, 
after  the  manner  of  Basedow,  with  more  favor 
than  Pestalozzi.  His  school,  while  enjoying  a 
high  reputation,  was  broken  up  by  the  in- 
trigues of  the  Jesuits.  In  1835,  he  published 
a  valuable  work,  entitled  ''''Educational  Course 
in  the  Maternal  Language^  for  the  Use  of 
Schools  and  Families,^'' 

Joseph  Lancaster  (1771-1839)  was  a  native 
of  England,  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends.  He  will  be  remembered  by  posterity 
as  the  founder  of  the  monitorial,  or  Lancaste- 
rian  system^  as  it  was  usually  called,  in  which 
the  most  intelligent  pupils  in  a  class  were 
required  to  teach  their  fellows  that  which  they 
had  acquired. 

This  plan,  it  was  argued,  developed  the 
intellect  of  the  young  monitor,  and  at  the 
same  time  his  intellectual  attainments  were  so 
nearly  on  a  level  with  those  of  his  companions, 
that  he  would  be  better  able  to  explain  the 
lesson  to  their  understandings,  than  a  teacher 
who  was  very  considerably  beyond  them  iu 


PEOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  251 

knowledge.  This  system  was,  theoretically, 
very  plausible,  and  at  one  period  great  num- 
bers of  schools,  particularly  in  cities  and  large 
towns,  both  in  England  and  this  country, 
adopted  it.  It  was  found,  however,  that  the 
knowledge  of  the  monitors  was,  for  the  most 
part,  crude  and  confused,  and  that  they  oftener 
taught  error  than  truth ;  and  the  system  is 
now  generally  abandoned.  The  method  was 
not  the  invention  of  Mr.  Lancaster,  for  Pesta- 
lozzi  had  practiced  it  to  some  extent,  and 
Trotzendorf,  two  centuries  earlier,  also ;  but  it 
was  more  fully  developed  and  systematized  by 
him  than  it  had  previously  been.  The  latter 
years  of  his  life,  from  1818  to  his  death,  were 
spent  in  this  country. 

Among  those  who  have,  by  their  humble 
but  assiduous  labors  in  the  cause  of  the  educa- 
tion of  the  poor,  exerted  a  powerful  influence 
in  the  promotion  of  universal  education,  we 
should  mention,  also,  the  pastor  Oherlin^  of  the 
Ban  de  la  Roche  (1740-1826),  by  whose  zeal 
and  patience  the  half-savage  population  of  that 
sterile  mountain  district  were  changed  into  an 


252  HISTORY  AND 

intelligent,  hospitable,  refined,  and  happy  peo- 
ple ;  the  brothers  Zellei%  who,  in  their  several 
capacities — the  elder  as  high-school  councilor 
of  Prussia,  and  the  younger  as  superintendent 
of  the  seminary  for  orphan  and  destitute  chil- 
dren, and  teachers  of  the  poor,  at  Beuggen — » 
have  accomplished  much  for  the  education  of 
the  lower  classes;  and  Jacoh  Velirl%  for  fifty 
years  at  the  head  of  the  normal  school  for 
country  teachers  at  Kruitzlingen,  from  whence 
he  has  sent  forth  an  influence  for  good  over 
Switzerland,  Germany,  France,  and  England. 

Humanitarian  education  has  made  very 
great  progress,  during  the  last  seventy  years, 
in  Europe  as  well  as  in  the  United  States. 
There  are  now  nearly  or  quite  two  hundred 
institutions  for  deaf  mutes,  more  than  one 
hundred  for  the  blind,  about  twenty  for  idiots, 
and  more  than  five  hundred  for  juvenile 
vagrants  and  offenders. 

In  the  reformatory  schools,  Dr.  J,  H. 
Wichern^  of  Horn,  near  Hamburg ;  MM.  De 
Metz  and  Bretigneres  de  Courteilles^  at  Met- 
tray;   MM.  Duc^etiaux^  at  Brussels,  and  Pol^ 


PEOGEESS   OF  EDUCATION.  253 

at  Ruysselede  ;  and  Messrs,  Turner^  Giles^ 
Lloyd  Baher^  and  others,  in  England,  are 
deserving  of  special  notice. 

In  this  country,  the  humanitarian  institu- 
tions are  numerous,  and  better  conducted 
than  in  Europe,  except  those  for  reformatory 
education,  where  the  evils  of  the  congregated 
system  have  prevented,  ta  some  extent,  that 
progress  which  is  desirable. 

The  present  condition  of  education  through- 
out the  civilized  world  is  hopeful :  intelligence 
is  more  generally  diflfused  than  at  any  previous 
period  of  the  world^s  history ;  every  branch  of 
science  has  received  new  impulses  within  the 
past  sixty  years ;  the  subjects  of  knowledge 
are  constantly  extending,  the  discoveries  in 
physical  science  have  opened  a  new  world  to 
the  dominion  of  man ;  philology  and  its  cog- 
nate sciences  have  been  greatly  extended,  the 
topics  and  methods  of  study  have  been  in- 
creased and  enlarged;  the  press  has  become, 
not  the  third  or  fourth,  but  the  first  power  in 
the  State ;  newspapers,  which,  prior  to  the 
present   century,    had  but  few   readers,   and 


254  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION. 

exerted  comparatively  little  influence,  now 
visit  almost  every  household,  and  influence 
the  views  and  opinions  of  men,  to  a  greater 
extent  than  any  other  agency.  The  progress 
of  moral  education  has,  on  the  whole,  fully 
kept  pace  with  intellectual  culture.  Physical 
training  is  not  yet  sufficiently  practiced,  but 
material  progress  is  making  in  this  particular. 


CHAPTEE   XXII. 

Review  of  the  present  condition  of  education  in  the  principal  coiintries 
of  the  world. — England. — Scotland,  Ireland,  France,  Spain,  and 
Portugal. — The  States  of  the  Church,  Sardinia,  Tuscany,  Naples, 
Turkey,  Greece,  Russia,  Lapland,  and  Finmark. — Norway,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark. 

A  BRIEF  review  of  the  present  condition  of 
education  in  the  more  prominent  countries  of 
the  world,  and  statistics  concerning  the  num- 
ber under  instruction,  may  fitly  close  our  brief 
history.  In  England,  the  facilities  for  acquir- 
ing a  thorough  university  education  are  excel- 
lent, for  those  who  have  sufficient  means  at 
command ;  the  course  of  study  at  Cambridge 
and  Oxford,  though  perhaps  giving  excessive 
prominence  to  classical  and  mathematical 
studies,  is  still  well  calculated  to  develop  the 
'intellectual  powers.  The  London  University, 
and  some  of  the  colleges  of  the  dissenters, 
give  more  attention  to  physical  science.  The 
great  endowed  schools  of  Eton,  Rugby,  Har- 
row, Westminster,  Winchester,    Christ's  Hos- 


256  HISTORY  AND 

pital,  &c.,  &c.,  are,  for  the  most  part,  devoted 
to  classical  and  mathematical  training. 

In  provision  for  the  education  of  the  masses, 
England  is  yet  far  behind  many  of  the  coun- 
tries of  Europe.  The  great  difficulty  has  been 
a  religious  one,— the  so-called  national  schools, 
as  well  as  most  others  which  received  assist- 
ance from  the  government,  being  under  the 
control  of  the  Established  Church,  and  the 
children  of  dissenters  being  educated  in  pri- 
vate schools.  Still,  under  the  persevering 
efforts  of  Lord  Brougham,  Sir  J.  Kay  Shuttle- 
worth,  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  Lord  Stanley, 
and  other  distinguished  friends  of  education, 
there  has  been  decisive  progress  within  a  few 
years  past :  the  factory  children  are  not  now 
brought  up  in  utter  ignorance;  a  cheap  yet 
instructive  literature  pervades  every  hamlet, 
and  has  developed,  even  in  the  lowest  classes, 
a  love  of  reading ;  evening  schools  for  adults, 
and  Sunday-schools,  which  there,  as  well  as  on 
the  continent,  are  very  often  occupied  with 
instruction  in  reading  and  other  elementary 
branches,  are  very  largely  attended. 


raOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  257 

The  education  of  deaf  mutes  and  the  blind, 
is  more  limited  than  in  France  or  this  coun- 
try, being  generally  confined  to  reading,  writ- 
ing, and  the  acquisition  of  some  mechanical 
art,  on  the  part  of  the  deaf  and  dumb ;  and 
reading  by  touch,  singing,  playing  on  musical 
instruments,  and  knitting,  mat-braiding,  weav- 
ing, or  basket-making,  for  the  blind. 

The  Reformatories  of  England  are  deserving 
of  high  praise,  both  for  their  number  and 
success.  Hundreds  are  every  year  rescued  by 
them  from  a  life  of  crime,  and  rendered  good 
and  intelligent  citizens. 

Scotland  is  inferior  to  England  in  its  facili- 
ties for  higher  education ;  and  the  low  salaries 
afforded  to  the  professors  in  its  universities, 
prevent,  in  many  cases,  highly  qualified  scholars 
from  accepting  the  posts;  but  in  secondary 
and  primary  education,  it  is  far  in  advance  of 
England.  Its  system  of  parish-schools  is  not, 
indeed,  perfect,  but  it  is  constantly  improving. 
Its  humanitarian  institutions  have  a  higher 
reputation  than  those  south  of  the  Tweed. 

Ireland,  so  long  the  victim  of  ignorance 


258  IIISTOEY  AND 

and  misrule,  is  improving  in  education  and 
general  intelligence,  as  much,  or  more  than 
any  country  of  Europe.  Within  a  few  years, 
good  schools  have  been  greatly  multiplied; 
and,  ere  long,  her  peasantry  will  be  beyond 
those  of  England  in  intelligence.  This  is  the 
result  of  the  system  of  national  education, 
established  there  about  thirty  years  since, 
which,  from  small  beginnings,  and  the  con- 
stant and  violent  opposition  of  ultraists  among 
both  Protestants  and  Catholics,  has  at  last 
drawn  into  its  schools  the  great  bulk  of  the 
children  of  the  country.  It  provides  for  com- 
lined  secular,  and  separate  religious  instruc- 
tion, and  thus  obviates  the  great  difficulties 
under  which  the  English  schools  have  labored. 
In  France,  superior  education^  as  it  is  called, 
especially  in  mathematical  and  physical  sci- 
ence, is  not  inferior  to  that  of  any  country  in 
the  world ;  and  the  colleges  and  lyceums 
which  are  found  in  every  considerable  town  in 
the  empire,  are  generally  well  conducted.  In 
thorough  classical  knowledge,  we  doubt  if  the 
French  scholars  are  equal  to  the  Germans,  and 


PROGKESS  OF  EDUCATION.  259 

in  helleS'lettres  they  are  certainly  not  superior 
to  the  English.  In  philosophy  they  have 
many  illustrious  names. 

Primary  education  was  very  much  neglected 
from  the  time  of  the  Revolution  of  1793  to 
the  accession  of  Louis  Philippe ;  but  the  efforts 
of  that  monarch,  seconded,  most  zealously,  by 
Guizot,  effected,  in  the  course  of  the  next 
eighteen  years,  a  wonderful  change ;  and,  in 
1850,  only  two  thousand  five  hundred  com- 
munes, out  of  more  than  thirty-eight  thousand, 
were  without  one  or  more  primary  schools, 
and  one-ninth  of  the  whole  population  were 
attending  school.  The  instruction  in  these 
primary  schools  might  be  improved ;  in  too 
many  of  them  the  method  of  Jacotot,  or  that 
of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  in 
which  too  much  reliance  is  placed  on  the 
memory,  and  the  understanding  is  not  suffi- 
ciently cultivated,  are  practiced.  The  chari- 
table, reformatory,  and  special  schools  of 
France  are  generally  well  conducted,  and  the 
success  of  some  of  them — that  of  the  institutes 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  for  the  blind,  and 


260  HISTOEY  AND 

the  reformatory  colony  at  Mettray — ^has  been 
beea  such  as  to  attract  the  attention  of  all  the 
nations  of  Europe. 

Of  the  educational  condition  of  Spain  and 
Portugal,  we  cannot  speak  so  favorably. 
Harassed,  for  years,  by  internal  discords  and 
civil  wars,  the  glory  which  once  belonged  to 
their  universities  has  long  since  departed; 
even  the  children  of  the  wealthy  and  noble 
are  but  indifferently  taught,  and  the  offspring 
of  the  poor  seldom  find  any  other  school  than 
that  at  their  own  fireside.  The  rigid  adher- 
ence of  the  people  to  the  Catholic  faith,  has 
prevented  the  introduction  (once  attempted) 
of  more  modern  systems  of  instruction,  like 
that  of  Pestalozzi ;  and  the  methods  of  the 
Jesuits  and  the  Esculapians  (an  order  similar 
to  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools),  and 
even  the  still  older  systems  of  the  middle 
ages,  characterize  the  teachings  of  the  sec- 
ondary and  primary  schools,  while  the  scholas- 
tic philosophy  still  finds  a  home  within  the 
walls  of  her  universities. 

In  Italy,  the  States  of  the  Church  do  not 


PKOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  261 

lack  for  schools  or  colleges.  Education  is 
superintended  by  a  company  of  cardinals,  who, 
under  the  designation  of  the  Congregation  of 
Studies^  make  the  examinations,  and,  person- 
ally or  by  deputy,  appoint  the  professors  and 
teachers.  The  primary  or  communal  schools 
are  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the 
bishops,  who  are  also  generally  chancellors  of 
the  universities.  There  are  also  regional 
schools,  and  schools  for  each  sex,  under  the 
direction  of  several  of  the  religious  orders. 
Most  of  these  schools  are  free,  or  nearly  so,  in 
many  of  them  the  teachers  being  supported  by 
endowments. 

The  instruction,  in  most  of  them,  is  not  very 
thorough,  except  on  religious  topics ;  and  the 
old  memorizing  system  is  in  vogue.  The 
standard  of  education  in  the  universities  and 
colleges  is  not  high ;  and  these  States,  which, 
at  the  revival  of  learning,  produced  some  of 
the  most  eminent  scholars  of  Europe,  have 
now  but  little  literary  reputation. 

Sardinia,  which,  up  to  1848,  was  behind 
most  of  the  other  countries  of  Europe  in  edu- 


262  HISTOKY  AND 

cation,  has,  since  that  time,  almost  taken  its 
place  among  the  foremost.  This  is  due,  in 
part,  to  the  labors  of  Antonio  Rosmini,  an 
accomplished  educator,  and  writer  on  peda- 
gogical science ;  and  in  part  to  the  impulse 
given  to  the  nation  by  a  constitutional  gov- 
ernment and  their  emancipation  from  priestly 
influence. 

The  system  of  education  embraces  superior 
and  inferior  primary  schools,  for  all  the  chil- 
dren of  the  kingdom ;  secondary  schools, 
colleges,  universities,  and  special  schools;  the 
Pestalozzian  method  is  generally  adopted,  and 
normal  schools,  well  conducted,  are  fast  sup- 
plying competent  teachers.  With  better  text- 
books, and  a  few  years'  experience  in  her 
present  system,  the  population  of  Sardinia  will 
speedily  become  one  of  the  most  intelligent  in 
Southern  Europe. 

Tuscany,  under  Austrian  influence,  has 
adopted,  to  a  considerable  extent,  the  Austrian 
system  of  education;  her  schools  are,  for  the 
most  part,  in  good  repute,  and  the  Universities 
of  Pisa  and  Sierra  retain  something  of  their 


•  PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  263 

ancient  renown.  Relatively,  however,  to  the 
other  countries  of  Europe,  Tuscany  has  fallen 
much  from  its  old  position.  The  home  of  the 
Medicis,  the  birth-place  of  Dante,  of  Lionardo 
da  Vinci,  and  of  numerous  others  of  the 
noblest  names  of  Italy,  it  once  stood  in  the 
front  rank  among  the  intelligent  and  educated 
nations  of  Christendom;  but  now  its  presses 
are  controlled  by  the  censorship,  and  its  uni- 
versities graduate  few  men  of  distinction. 

The  Kingdom  of  Naples,  or  the  Two  Sici- 
lies, is  in  a  very  low  educational  condition. 
Sicily  has  mt)re  schools  than  the  continental 
portion  of  the  kingdom,  but  they  are  not  well 
conducted,  and  beyond  reading  and  writing, 
the  children  make  very  little  progress.  Its 
colleges  and  universities  have  some  reputation, 
but  the  despotic  character  of  the  government 
is  unfavorable  to  much  intellectual  freedom  or 
activity. 

Turkey  has  schools  for  its  Moslem  popula- 
tion, and  its  laws  make  it  obligatory  on  every 
parent  to  send  his  children  to  school.  The 
teaching  is  in  Turkish  and  Arabic,  and  is  not 


264  HISTORY  AND 

generally  of  the  highest  order ;  there  has  been, 
however,  material  improvement  since  1847, 
when  a  system  of  intermediate  schools  was 
established,  which  took  the  place  of  the  sec- 
ondary schools  of  other  countries.  Previously 
there  had  only  existed  the  mekteb^  or  elemen- 
tary schools,  and  the  medressehs^  or  gymnasia. 
There  are  some  special  schools,  but  education 
is  at  a  low  ebb.  • 

Greece  has,  since  its  independence,  made 
zealous  efforts  for  the  improvement  of  public 
instruction.  There  is  an  efficient  university 
at  Athens,  secondary  schools  in  each  consider- 
able town,  and,  in  most  cases,  elementary 
schools  in  each  commune.  The  Pestalozzian 
system  is  generally  adopted.  As  yet,  how- 
ever, not  much  more  than  one-fourth  of  the 
children  are  under  instruction. 

Russia,  though  in  many  respects  only  a 
semi-civilized  nation,  has  made  very  strenuous 
exertions,  of  late  years,  to  improve  the  educa- 
tional condition  of  its  people.  Its  universities 
and  its  special  schools  of  military,  mining, 
engineering,   manufacturing,   and   agricultural 


FROGBESS   OF  EDUCATION.  265 

science,  are  worthy  of  very  high  commenda- 
tion for  the  extent  and  thoroughness  of  their 
instruction.  Provision  is  made  for  the  elemen- 
tary instruction  of  the  children  of  the  soldiery, 
who  are  generally  expected  to  follow  their 
fathers'  profession ;  but,  although  ukases  have 
been  issued,  ordering  the  establishment  of 
schools  in  every  commune,  yet  not  one-seventh 
of  the  children  of  European  Russia  receive 
any  instruction  whatever.  The  present  Czar 
is  deeply  interested  in  the  improvement  of 
the  social  and  intellectual  condition  of  his 
people,  and  his  efforts  will  not  be  wanting  to 
effect  a  favorable  progress  in  this  direction. 

Lapland  and  Finmark  are  almost  destitute 
of  schools,  though  many  of  the  Lapps  and  Fins 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  reading,  and  some  of 
them  have  become  eminent  as  scholars.  The 
people  of  Iceland  are  generally  intelligent,  but 
their  education  is,  for  the  most  part,  domestic, 
or  communicated  by  their  pastors. 

In  Norway,  though  the  sparseness  of  the 
population  is  a  great  drawback  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  good  schools  in  the  country,  education 

12 


266  HISTORY  AND 

is  very  general.  Only  about  one-eighth  of 
her  population  dwell  in  towns.  For  these,  the 
advantages  of  education  are  hardly  surpassed 
by  any  country  in  Europe :  there  are  elemen- 
tary and  upper  district-schools,  citizens'  schools, 
answering  very  nearly  to  our  academies ;  Real 
schools,  in  which  technical  science  is  taught  in 
connection  with  the  knowledge  of  modern 
languages ;  Latin  or  cathedral  schools,  furnish- 
ing a  classical  education ;  military,  agricultur- 
al, drawing,  and  polytechnic  schools;  normal 
schools,  and  a  university.  In  the  country, 
there  are  what  are  called  ambulatory  schools^ 
kept  by  teachers  who  go  from  hamlet  to  ham- 
let, and  teach  for  about  eight  weeks  in  each. 

In  Sweden,  education  is  very  general. 
Through  the  efforts  of  Mr.  Siljestrom,  a  law 
has  been  passed,  requiring  at  least  one  station- 
ary school  in  each  parish,  and  normal  schools 
for  teachers,  in  addition  to  the  ambulatory 
schools,  which  ara  still  necessary  in  the  dis- 
tricts of  scattered  and  sparse  population.  The 
system  of  schools  is  quite  complete,  but  the 
quality  of  the  teaching  is  susceptible  of  im- 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         267 

provement.  In  physical  education  the  Swedes 
are  not  equaled  by  any  country  in  Europe. 
Their  universities  at  Upsala  and  Lund  have  a 
high  reputation. 

Denmark  has  for  many  years  maintained  a 
high  standard  of  education ;  the  proportion  of 
pupils  in  school  to  the  whole  population,  is 
said  to  be  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
country  in  Europe.  The  Pestalozzian  method 
is  generally  adopted ;  and  there  is  a  complete 
system  of  graded  schools,  from  the  university 
to  the  primary  school. 


OHAPTEE   XXIII. 

The  German  States. —Prussia,  Saxony,  and  Wurtemberg. — Austria, 
Bohemia,  Croatia,  and  the  Austrian  Archduchies  in  Italy. — Bavaria, 
Mecklenburg,  and  the  smaller  States. — Eminent  living  and  recent 
German  writers  on  education. — Africa. — Egypt  and  the  tributaries 
of  the  Porte. — Algiers,  Sierra  Leone,  Liberia,  Cape  Colony. — Othei 
portions  of  the  African  continent. — Asia. — Persia,  Independent  and 
Chinese  Tartary,  Afghanistan  and  Beloochistan,  Siberia,  China,  and 
Japan. — Thibet,  Siara,  Tonquin,  Burmah,  Malacca,  The  Karens  and 
Shyens,  India,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  the  Pacific  islands. 

The  States  of  Germany,  with  hardly  an 
exception,  occupy  a  high  educational  position. 
There  is,  however,  a  difference  in  these  States. 
Prussia,  Saxony,  and  Wurtemberg  are  perhaps 
entitled  to  the  first  rank,  Austria  to  the  second, 
and  Bavaria,  Mecklenburg,  and  perhaps  some 
other  of  the  smaller  States  to  the  lowest.  In 
Prussia,  as  well  as  in  several  of  the  other 
German  States,  a  modification  of  the  Pesta- 
lozzian  method  is  adopted.  The  elementary 
text-book  in  the  primary  schools,  is  a  Reader 
(a  modern  Oi'his  Pictus)^  in  which  the  rudi- 
ments of  geography  (the  geography  of  Ger- 


270  HISTORY  AND 

many),  natural  history,  arithmetic,  language, 
&c.,  are  arranged  as  reading  lessons;  and  all 
instruction  not  found  in  the  Reader,  is  commu- 
nicated orally  by  the  teacher,  assisted,  how- 
ever, by  maps,  drawings,  specimens  of  natural 
history,  &c.,  which  are  found  in  every  school- 
room. 

Eight  years'  attendance  upon  the  schools  is 
compulsory  upon  the  children ;  they  pass  from 
the  primary  to  the  burgher  schools,  the  Real 
schools,  the  gymnasia,  and  the  university,  if 
they  choose  to  obtain  a  thorough  education. 
Prussia  abounds  in  special  schools.  There 
are  advantages  of  higher  education  open  to 
females.  Normal  schools  are  established  in  all 
the  principal  towns  of  the  kingdom ;  but  the 
demand  for  teachers  is  so  much  greater  than 
the  supply,  that,  in  1854,  the  period  of  train- 
ing was  shortened,  and  the  standard  of  attain- 
ments lowered, — a  measure  regarded  by 
eminent  educators  as  extremely  injurious  to 
the  welfare  of  the  schools.  The  plan  of  edu- 
cation adopted  in  Saxony  and  Wurtemberg, 
differs  but  little  from  that  of  Prussia.     It  is 


PKOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  271 

perhaps  somewhat  more  thorough  and  liberal 
in  Saxony,  and  its  results  are  highly  satis- 
factory. 

Austria,  though  far  behind  Prussia  and 
several  of  the  other  States  in  intellectual 
progress,  is  improving.  Austria  proper  has, 
within  a  few  years,  made  great  advance  in  her 
elementary  schools,  and  has  established  many 
Real  schools,  which  differ  from  those  bearing 
the  same  name  in  North  Germany,  in  being 
more  technical  in  their  character,  and  in  pur- 
suing a  more  extended  course.  The  Method 
of  Sagan  has  given  place  to  better  systems  of 
instruction ;  and  though  there  is  still  great 
room  for  improvement,  yet  Austria  occupies 
a  very  fair  position  among  the  countries  of 
Europe  in  the  intelligence  of  its  people. 

Since  1855,  attendance  upon  the  schools 
has  been  made  compulsory ;  and  great  efforts 
have  been  made  to  extend  to  Hungary,  Bohe- 
mia, Croatia,  and  Austrian  Italy  similar  regu- 
lations to  those  maintained  in  the  Archduchy 
of  Austria. 

In  Bavaria,  Mecklenburg,  and  some  of  the 


272  HISTORY  AND 

other  small  German  States,  the  governments 
have  taken  less  interest  in  the  promotion  of 
education  than  in  the  States  already  named, 
and  the  schools,  consequently,  have  not 
attained  a  high  position.  Higher  education 
is,  however,  well  cared  for  in  Bavaria,  and  the 
fine  arts  are  cultivated,  at  Munich,  with  a  zeal 
unsurpassed  in  Germany. 

The  present  generation  has  not  been  with- 
out able  pedagogical  writers  in  Germany. 
Von  Raumer,  Diesterweg,  Blochmann,  Nie- 
meyer,  and  Schwarz  have  rendered  good  ser- 
vice to  the  work  of  instruction  by  their  ^yorks 
on  the  history  and  science  of  pedagogy. 

In  the  variety  and  extent  of  their  charitable 
educational  institutions,  the  Germans  have 
surpassed  all  the  other  nations  of  Europe. 
They  have  a  great  number  of  institutions  for 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  ten  or  twelve  for  the 
blind,  two  for  idiots,  and  four  or  five  for 
cretins;  creches  and  hinder-garten  (children's 
gardens),  for  infants ;  some  hundreds  of  re- 
formatories, for  all  classes  of  juvenile  off'enders 
and  vagrants ;  orphan  schools,  almost  without 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         273 

number;  industrial  schools;  ''work  schools," 
for  pauper  children,  one  of  which,  that  of 
Gustavus  Werner  at  Reutlingen,  has  in  train- 
ing and  supervision  seven  hundred  pauper 
children ;  schools  for  the  education  and  train- 
ing of  deaconesses,  or  Protestant  sisters  of 
charity,  hospital  nurses  and  superintendents, — 
like  that  of  Pastor  Fliedner,  at  Kaiserswerth, 
where  Florence  Nightingale  received  the  in- 
struction which  qualified  her  for  her  noble 
work;  the  schools  of  the  Inner  Mission,  at 
Horn,  near  Hamburg,  where  young  men  are 
trained  to  take  charge  of  reformatories, 
prisons,  hospitals,  &c. ; — in  short,  the  compre- 
hensive German  heart  has,  it  would  seem, 
provided  institutions  to  meet  all  the  ills,  the 
wants,  and  deficiencies  of  suffering  and  sinful 
humanity. 

On  the  great  African  continent,  we  find  but 
little  attention  paid  to  education.  Egypt  and 
the  TmBUTARiES  of  the  Porte,  in  Northern 
Africa,  have  schools  after  the  Moslem  fashion, 
in  which  the  children  of  the  true  believers  are 
taught  to  read  the  Koran,  and  acquire  a  little 

12« 


274  HISTORY  AND 

rudimentary  knowledge  of  arithmetic.  Al- 
giers, as  a  French  colony,  is  receiving  the 
French  system  of  communal  and  higher 
schools.  The  English  and  American  settle- 
ments at  Sierra  Leone  and  Liberia  have 
established  schools  in  accordance  with  the 
plans  of  the  mother  countries,  Liberia  having 
organized  also  a  college.  The  Cape  Colony 
has  free  schools  in  every  district,  and  two 
colleges;  but  the  vast  territories  which  com- 
prise the  interior,  and  eastern  coast  of  the 
continent,  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  any 
system  of  education. 

Those  tribes  and  countries  into  which  the 
Arabs  have  penetrated,  have  usually  a  few 
persons  who  can  read  and  write ;  and  in  the 
Portuguese  settlements,  which  occasionally  dot 
the  coasts,  may  be  found  some  persons  of 
Portuguese  extraction,  who  possess  a  tolerable 
education ; — ^biit  aside  from  these,  and  the  few 
schools  which  the  missionaries  have  been  able 
to  establish  at  their  various  stations,  there  is 
nothing  which  can,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of 
the  term,  be  called  education. 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         275 

Portions  of  Asia  are  less  degraded.  In 
Persia  there  stilP  remains  the  tradition  of  the 
learning  which  once  made  Bagdad  and  Ispa- 
han the  centers  of  intelligence  for  the  worship- 
ers of  Mohammed;  and  many  of  the  Persian 
mullahs  are,  at  the  present  day,  accomplished 
in  the  Arabic  lore,  which  was  so  highly  prized 
in  the  days  of  the  Abassides. 

Further  east,  the  nomadic  tribes  which  roam 
over  the  wide  steppes  of  Independent  and  Chi- 
nese Tartary,  and  the  thievish,  freebooting 
Afghans  and  Beloochees,  have  little  respect 
for  books  or  learning.  The  principal  towns 
of  Siberia  have  schools  and  educated  people ; 
but  they  are  exiles  from  Russia,  or  officers  and 
their  families  who  are  located  there  on  duty. 

Of  China  and  Japan  we  have  already 
spoken ;  their  systems  of  education  have 
changed  but  little,  probably,  for  two  thousand 
five  hundred  years.  In  Thibet,  the  condition 
of  education  does  not  vary,  materially,  from 
that  of  China.  Siam,  Tonqcjin,  and  Burmah, 
professing  substantially  the  Budhist  faith,  have 
also  the  Budhist   educational   system ;    while 


276  HISTORY  AND 

the  inhabitants  of  Malacca  and  the  Malaysiak 
Isles  are  hardly  to  be  considered  as  possessing 
any  education. 

A  large  population,  extending  over  consid- 
erable portions  of  Farther.  India,  and  known 
under  the  names  of  Karens  and  Shyens^  have 
not  embraced  the  Budhist  doctrines,  and 
possessed  no  written  language  until  they  were 
provided  with  one  by  the  missionaries. 

In  India,  while  the  Brahminical  system  has 
made  small  advance  from  its  methods  of 
instruction  two  thousand  years  ago,  the  East 
India  Company  have  made  some  efforts  to 
establish  colleges  for  the  education  of  such  of 
the  Brahmins  as  might  fill  offices  in  the  em- 
ploy of  the  Company ;  and  the  missionaries  of 
the  different  denominations  have  established 
schools,  of  different  grades,  in  various  parts  of 
India.  The  mutiny  and  war  have  broken  up 
many  of  these,  but  they  will  probably  be  re- 
opened. 

In  Australia,  schools  have  been  established 

and  liberally  supported  by  the  government ; 

>and  two  colleges,  one  at  Sydney  and  the  other 


PEOGEESS  OF  EDUCATION.         277 

at  Melbourne,  have  been  founded.  Tasmania, 
New  Zealand,  the  Society  and  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  all  have  good  schools;  and,  in  the 
two  latter  groups,  the  natives  are,  many  of 
them,  acquiring  considerable  education.  At 
Oahu,  one  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  group,  a 
college  has  recently  been  established. 


CHAPTEK   XXiy. 

North  and  South  America.— Canada  East  and  West. — United  States. 
— Nortliern  and  Southern  States. — Hispano- American  States :  Mex- 
ico, Central  America,  &c. — West  India  Islands:  Cuba,  Porto  Kico, 
Jamaica,  Trinidad,  Hayti,  &c. — South  America.— New  Grenada, 
Venezuela,  Ecuador. — French,  Dutch,  and  British  Guiana. — Brazil, 
the  Argentine  Confederation,  Buenos  Ayres,  Uruguay,  and  Para- 
guay.— Chile,  Bolivia,  and  Peru. 

Turning  our  attention  to  the  American 
continent,  we  find  in  Newfoundland  a  low 
state  of  education ;  in  New  Brunswick,  a 
larger  number  of  schools  in  proportion  to  the 
population,  and  a  college,  not  very  efficient ; 
in  Canada  East,  a  good  school  system,  em- 
bracing all  grades  from  the  university  to  the 
primary  school,  and  an  annually  increasing 
attendance  and  efficiency;  in  Canada  West, 
an  organization  unsurpassed  in  its  results,  for 
attendance  and  intellectual  progress,  by  any  in 
the  world. 

In  the  United  States  there  is  a  great  variety 
in  the  educational  condition  of  different -sec- 


280  HISTORY  AND 

tions  of  the  country.  The  Northern  States, 
owing  in  part  to  their  more  compact  popu- 
lation, and  in  part  also  to  the  strong  conviction 
of  the  necessity  of  popular  education,  received 
from  the  large  infusion  of  settlers  of  New  Eng- 
land birth,  have  generally  efficient  school- 
systems  ;  and  though,  in  some  of  them,  owing 
to  the  very  recent  period  of  their  settlement, 
the  details  are  not  yet  thoroughly  wrought 
out,  yet  they  can  not  fail,  in  a  few  years,  to 
present  a  condition,  in  respect  to  education, 
unequaled  by  any  nation  on  the  globe. 

The  Southern  States,  on  the  other  hand, 
owing  to  the  sparseness  of  their  inhabitants, 
the  existence  of  a  large  servile  population,  and 
the  wealth  of  the  principal  property-holders, 
have  not  generally  attained  to  so  high  an 
educational  position. 

A  few  of  these  States  have  made  praise- 
worthy efforts  for  a  more  effective  school- 
system,  and,  considering  the  difficulties  with 
which  they  have  had  to  contend,  have 
made  good  progress  ;  among  these,  North 
Carolina,  Alabama,  Missouri,  Kentucky,  Ten- 


PROGHESS  OF  EDUCATION.         281 

nessee,  and  Louisiana  are  deserving  of  special 
mention. 

The  higher  education  is  not  equal  to  that  of 
England,  France,  or  Germany.  Our  colleges, 
numbering  more  than  one  hundred  and 
twenty,  though  possessing  more  extensive 
grounds,  and  often  much  larger  endowments, 
are  not,  with  a  few  exceptions,  superior,  in  the 
extent  or  thoroughness  of  their  course  of  in- 
struction, to  the  collegiate  schools  of  England, 
the  lyceums  and  colleges  of  France,  or  the 
gymnasia.  Real  schools,  and  Latin  schools  of 
Germany.  Of  true  university  instruction,  with 
the  exception  of  Harvard  University,  Yale 
College,  and  Columbia  College,  we  have 
nothing  deserving  the  name ;  and  even  these 
are  far  below  the  European  universities. 

But,  in  the  wide  diffusion  of  elementary 
education,  and  in  the  development  of  a  high 
intellectual  activity,  no  country  of  Europe  can 
compare  favorably  with  the  New  England 
States  and  New  York.  A  comparison  of  the 
percentage  of  children  in  attendance  upon  the 
schools  in  these  States,  to  the  whole  popula- 


282  HfSTOKY  AND 

tion,  with  Prussia,  Austria,  Saxony,  and  Den- 
mark, where  attendance  is  compulsory,  will 
show  conclusively  the  efficiency  of  their  school 
organization.  Education  in  the  United  States, 
though  materially  influenced  by  the  writings 
of  Pestalozzi,  Fellenberg,  and  their  associates 
and  followers,  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  con- 
ducted on  the  Pestalozzian  method.  The 
mutual  or  monitorial  system  of  Lancaster,  once 
very  popular  here,  is  now  entirely  discarded. 

The  efforts  of  Woodbridge,  Carter,  Gallau- 
det,  and  others ;  and,  more  recently,  of  Horace 
Mann,  Henry  Barnard,  David  P.  Page,  Bishop 
Alonzo  Potter,  and  other  eminent  friends  of 
education,  have  accomplished  much  for  the 
diffusion  of  right  views  on  the  subject  of 
teaching,  and  have  led  to  the  adoption  of 
measures  which  render  our  common-school 
system  the  glory  of  our  country.  In  this 
country,  the  Sunday-school  is  not,  as  in  most 
of  the  European  States,  used  to  impart  secular 
instruction. 

Humane  and  reformatory  institutions  are 
quite  numerous  in  the  United  States:   there 


PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         283 

are  more  than  twenty  deaf  and  dumb  institu- 
tions, nearly  the  same  number  for  the  blind ; 
seven  schools  for  idiots,  and  nearly  or  quite 
fifty  reform  schools.  Besides  the  professional 
seminaries,  special  schools  of  military,  naval, 
engineering,  chemical,  and  agricultural  science, 
also  exist, — and  the  last  are  becoming  quite 
numerous. 

The  HisPANO-AMEmcAN  States — Mexico 
and  Central  America — owing  in  part  to  their 
frequent  revolutions,  and  in  part  to  the  large 
admixture  of  races,  are  in  a  very  low  educa- 
tional condition,  much  lower,  even,  than  when 
provinces  of  Spain.  No  public-school  system 
exists ;  and,  though  there  are  a  few  good 
private  schools,  and  some  conventual  schools, 
and  a  university  at  the  city  of  Mexico,*  the 
great  mass  of  the  people  are  most  deplorably 
illiterate. 

In  the  West  India  Islands,  Cuba  has  made 
some  efforts  for  the  improvement  of  education 
since  1842,  and  has  now  two  very  good 
universities  and  several  colleges.  The  number 
of  elementary  schools  is  estimated  at  about  six 


284  HISTORY  AND 

hundred,  and  of  pupils  not  over  ten  thousand, 
about  one  in  one  hundred  of  the  population. 
In  the  rural  districts  profound  ignorance  pre- 
vails, while  in  the  cities  there  are  a  considera- 
ble number  of  good  schools.  The  wealthier 
classes,  very  generally,  send  their  children 
abroad  for  an  education. 

In  Jamaica,  popular  education  is  more  ad- 
vanced, and  a  very  considerable  proportion  of 
the  people  of  color  are  beginning  to  under^ 
stand  its  advantages.  The  children  in  school 
constitute  about  one-thirtieth  of  the  whole 
population.  Hayti  has  few  schools,  and  no 
public  provision  is  made  for  education.  The 
children  of  the  wealthy  are  generally  sent  to 
France  for  instruction.  In  the  Dominican 
Republic,  and  in  Porto  Rico,  the  schools  are 
few,  and  generally  poor.  Trinidad  has  some 
good  schools.  The  smaller  islands  have  gen- 
erally made  some  provision  for  instruction, 
though,  of  course,  the  advantages  are  usually 
limited. 

In  South  America,  we  find  the  States  of 
New  Grenada,  Venezuela,  and  Ecuador  pos- 


PEOGEESS   OF  EDUCATION.  285 

sessing  few  schools,  and  those  of  a  very  inferior 
character ;  a  very  large  majority  even  of  the 
white  and  Creole  inhabitants  can  not  read  or 
write,  and  of  the  Indians  the  number  who  can 
do  so  is  very  small.  In  French  and  Dutch 
Guiana  the  condition  of  things  is  not  much 
better;  while  in  British  Guiana  there  are 
many  good  schools,  and  about  one  in  thirteen 
of  the  population,  including  the  Indians  and 
negroes,  are  in  attendance  upon  them.  Brazil 
is  making  great  efforts  to  diffuse  education 
among  her  people.  The  emperor  is  deeply 
interested  in  its  promotion,  and  a  very  efficient 
system  has  been  organized,  but  as  yet  can  not 
be  enforced,  except  in  the  larger  towns. 
There  are  colleges,  or  faculties  of  science,  in 
most  of  the  principal  towns,  universities  at 
San  Paulo  and  Pernambuco,  and  academies  or 
lyceums  in  the  smaller  towns.  It  will  be  long 
before  schools  can  be  very  generally  estab- 
lished through  the  empire,  though  the  large 
colonies  of  Germans,  which  are  settling  at 
various  points,  coming  as  they  do  from  the 
best  sections  of  Germany,  will  render  material 


286  HISTORY  AND 

assistance  in  the  work.  At  present,  not  one- 
sixtieth  of  the  inhabitants  are  in  school. 

The  Argentine  Confederation,  and  the  State 
of  Buenos  Ayres,  have  hitherto  paid  very 
little  attention  to  education.  The  guacJios^ 
who  form  a  majority  of  their  native  popu- 
lation, are  a  rough,  semi-savage  race,  who 
care  nothing  for  books,  and  regard  schools 
with  contempt.  In  Buenos  Ayres,  which, 
with  the  province  of  the  same  name,  has 
recently  assumed  an  independent  position, 
and  some  of  the  large  towns  of  the  Argentine 
Confederation,  there  is  a  very  considerable 
foreign  population,  who  are  generally  intelli- 
gent, and  who  have  encouraged  the  establish- 
ment of  schools  of  a  high  grade.  The  news- 
paper press  of  Buenos  Ayres  is  conducted 
with  more  ability  than  that  of  any  other  South 
American  city. 

Uruguay  possesses  even  less  educational 
facilities  than  the  Argentine  Republic ;  and 
the  almost  constant  wars  in  which  it  has  been 
engaged  for  some  years  past,  have  tended  to 
reduce  its  inhabitants  to  a  still  lower  condition 


PROGRESS   OF  EDUCATION.  287 

of  ignorance.  Paraguay,  on  the  contrary,  has 
a  system  of  parochial  schools,  established  by 
the  Dictator  Francia,  and,  relatively  to  most 
of  the  other  South  American  States,  may  be 
considered  as  occupying  a  high  rank  in  the 
matter  of  education.  Chile  is  in  advance  of 
any  other  State  of  South  America,  in  its  edu- 
cational condition.  Its  system  of  schools 
embraces  all  grades,  from  the  university  to 
the  primary  school  ;  and  in  some  of  the 
departments  the  primary  schools  are  numerous 
and  well  conducted;  in  others,  they  are  not 
yet  generally  established;  but  in  all,  there  is 
material  and  decided  progress.  The  classical 
instruction  in  her  colleges,  especially  in  Latin, 
would  do  no  discredit  to  a  European  college ; 
and  her  eminent  naturalists  have  diffused  a 
fondness  for  physical  science,  which  will,  ere 
long,  yield  abundant  results.  Bolivia  and 
Peru  are,  like  the  States  north  of  them, 
enveloped  in  ignorance.  In  the  larger  towns 
there  are  some  schools,  and  in  Lima  a  uni- 
versity, dating  from  1551 ;  but  so  large  a 
proportion   of    the    population   of    Peru    are 


^ 


288  HISTOKY  AND 

entirely  destitute  of  education,  that  in  the 
interior  it  is  difficult  to  find  men  who  can  read 
and  write,  to  fill  the  government  offices. 

The  impulse  which  has  been  given  to  edu- 
cation throughout  Christendom,  within  the  last 
fifty  years,  has  already  accomplished  vast  re- 
sults in  improving  all  the  apparatus  of  instruc- 
tion and  the  methods  of  teaching.  In  the 
German  States,  it  has  induced  thorough  pro- 
fessional training,  by  means  of  normal  schools 
and  teachers'  seminaries,  the  general  abandon- 
ment of  corporal  punishment,  the  introduction 
of  oral  exercises,  blackboards,  and  thinking- 
lessons  ; — in  Great  Britain,  a  reduction  of  the 
extreme  severities  of  former  times,  better 
qualified  teachers,  and  greatly  improved  text- 
books ; — in  the  United  States,  very  great  im- 
provements in  the  architecture  of  school- 
houses,  in  the  organization  of  normal  schools, 
teachers'  institutes,  and  teachers'  associations; 
the  introduction  of  globes,  blackboards,  charts, 
&c. ;  a  milder  and  better  discipline,  improved 
methods  of  teaching,  and  the  substitution  of 
of  really  scientific  and  well-adapted  text-books 


PEOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.  289 

for  the  imperfect  and  ill-arranged  treatises 
previously  in  use. 

Within  a  few  years  past,  the  competition 
in  the  production  of  school-books  has  perhaps 
been  carried  to  an  injurious  extent;  but  no 
one  can  compare  those  now  in  use  with  those 
in  the  schools  fifty  years  since,  without  becom- 
ing satisfied  that  the  progress  has  been  almost 
miraculous.  The  danger  most  to  be  feared  at 
the  present  day,  in  these  books,  is  that  the 
process  of  simplification  may  be  canned  too 
far,  and  the  pupil  be  led  through  a  wearisome 
round  of  text-books  with  but  little  real  ad- 
vancement in  knowledge. 

The  improvement  in  school-architecture  has 
been  very  remarkable,  especially  in  the  North- 
ern States,  The  admirable  work  of  Hon, 
Henry  Barnard  on  this  subject  has  contributed 
very  largely  to  this  result,  and  has  led  others 
recently  to  enter  the  same  field. 

But  the  most  efficient  measures  for  the 
improvement  of  education  have  been  the 
establishment  of  normal  schools,  teachers'  in- 
stitutes, and   teachers'   associations  and   peri- 


290  HISTORY  AND 

odicals.  Here  new  and  sound  views  in  regard 
to  instruction,  the  lessons  of  experience,  and 
the  deductions  of  science,  have  been  dissem- 
inated among  thousands  of  teachers ;  and 
thereby  the  standard  of  teaching  has  been 
greatly  elevated,  and  real  progress  has  been 
made  toward  excellence. 

In  the  department  of  higher  education  there 
has  also  been  material  advance.  The  curric- 
ulum of  study  has  been  enlarged,  the  require- 
ments for  admission  raised;  the  examinations 
have  become  true  tests  of  scholarship ;  higher 
attainments  have  been  required  in  the  profes- 
sors; scientific  schools  have  been  established 
in  connection  Avith  several  of  the  universities, 
and  separate  schools  of  mines,  chemistry, 
physical  science,  and  civil  engineering,  organ- 
ized. 

Astronomical  science,  within  the  past  fifty 
years,  has  made  great  progress,  both  in  Europe 
and  America ;  and  in  every  department  of 
physical  research,  more  has  been  accomplished 
than  in  any  previous  century. 

We  may  look  with  certainty  for  an  advance 


PEOGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.         291 

proportionally  much  greater,  in  the  coming 
fifty  years.  Civilized  nations  appreciate,  as 
they  have  never  done  before,  the  advantages 
of  education ;  and,  ere  long,  the  teeming  mil- 
lions of  China,  Japan,  and  India,  driven  from 
their  slumber  of  three  thousand  years  by  the 
impulses  of  the  electric  wire  and  the  rush  of 
the  locomotive,  will  join  with  the  enlightened 
nations  of  the  West,  in  seeking  a  higher 
intellectual  development,  and  the  beneficial 
results  of  a  purer  science. 


EDUCATIONAL  STATISTICS. 


We  present  a  carefully  prepared  Table  showing 
the  educational  condition  of  the  different  States  of 
the  Union  about  the  beginning  of  1858.  The  col- 
xirnn  of  children  of  school-age  embraces  all  between 
five  and  twenty.  A  part  of  the  States  having  taken 
no  enumeration  of  population  since  1850,  the  pro- 
portion of  scholars  to  population  is  not  always  ac- 
curate ;  and  in  regard  to  attendance  in  the  Southern 
and  Western  States,  we  have  reason  to  believe  the 
published  reports  are  frequently  defective.  We 
have  invariably  obtained  the  latest  data  to  be  had, 
and  believe  that  it  will  give  a  more  complete  esti- 
mate of  the  state  of  education  in  the  United  States 
than  has  ever  before  been  presented. 


294 


EDUCATIONAL  STATISTICS. 


STATISTICS  OF  EDDCATIOI  m  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

PUBLIC    SCHOOLS. 


State  or  Territort. 


Population. 
Latest 
Census. 


Whole 
Number  of 
Children  of 
School-Age. 


Whole 

Number  of 

Scholars 

attending 

School. 


Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts . . 
Rhode  Island. . . 
Connecticut .... 

New  York 

Pennsylvania. . . 
New  Jersey.... 

Delaware 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Michigan 

Iowa , 

Wisconsin , 

Missouri 

Kentucky , 

Virginia 

Maryland , 

Louisiana 

Tennessee 

North  Carolina . . 

Georgia 

Alabama 

South  Carolina  . . 

Mississippi 

Arkansas 

Florida 

Texas  

California 


35,000 

8,030 

10,200 

7,250 

1,306 

4,750 

46,000 

47,000 

6,871 

2,120 

39J964 

33,809 

55,409 

56,243 

50,914 

53,924 

65,037 

37,680 

61,352 

11,000 

41,346 

44,000 

45,000 

58,000 

50,722 

30,213 

47,151 

52,198 

69,268 

274,356 

155,500 


583,169 
317,976 
314,120 

1,133,123 
147,545 
370,792 

3,470,459 

2,311,786 

489,555 

91,532 

1,980,329 
988,416 

1,306,576 
511,672 
509,414 
552,451 
900,000 
982,405 

1,421,661 
583,034 
587,774 

1,002,717 
869,039 
935,090 
841,704 
668,507 
606,526 
247,112 
110,823 
212,592 
507,067 


208,854 
112,968 

96,568 
283,000 

35,902 

111,717 

1,058,324 

523,754 

196,944 

31,544 
792,019 
439,257 
369,064 
204,268 
195,285 
241,647 
302,323 
287,212 
414,318 
186,896 

96,280 
288,538 
245,000 
275,316 
171,073 
114,282 
183,903 

75,000 

22,512 
104,313 

26,170 


151,637 

96,199 

90,110 

203,031 

26,480 

71,269 

832,735 

598,768 

129,720 

11,468 

603,347 

195,176 

323,393 

142,334 

79,672 

167,110 

97,907 

139,805 

49,547 

33,111 

36,000 

126,317 

150,000 

77,015 

89,160 

19,132 

18,746 


17,232 


7,694,251 


4,576,621 


EDUCATIONAL  STATISTICS. 


295 


STATISTICS  OF  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

PUBLIC    SCHOOLS. 


State  or  Territory. 

Amount  of 

Annual  Current 

Expenses  for 

Schools. 

Average  Wages 

of  Teachers, 

inclusive  of 

Board. 

Amount  of 
School  Fund. 

Av.  No. 
Months 

of 
School 
per  ann. 

Av.  An. 
Cost  of 
Tuition 
to  each 
pupil. 

Males. 

Females 

Maine 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts . . 
Rhode  Island... 

Connecticut 

New  York 

Pennsylvania... 

New  Jersey 

Delaware 

Ohio 

$634,341.89 
215,942.00 
265,623.00 

2,346,309.76 
167,519.75 
358,235.00 

3,299,898.93 

2,238,840.74 

503,929.48 

78,253.14 

2,432,069.65 

821,713.80 

302,998.00 

331,153.89 

198,143.00 

484,000.00 

436,975.11 

304,933.20 

176,645.61 

70,000.00 

312,235.42 

203,197.92 

272,320.00 

36,236.00 

490,690.00 

78,338.87 

81,205.29 

100,000.00 

46,060.01 

125,000.00 

156,712.00 

127.30 
26.31 
26.92 
46.63 
34.50 
30.00 

$14.40 
14,74 
15.64 
19.17 
20.34 
16.00 

$166,346 

5.    1 

5. 

5.5 

7.5 

8.5 

7.8 

5.13 

9. 

7.6 

6.8 

3.03 

6. 

5.6 

$2.13 

2.98 

12. 

5.60 
3.02 
3.97 
7.09 
5.92 

3.30 
4.21 

1.6) 

1,653,082 

73,894 

2,046,397 

2,526,392 

24.00 
32.50 

16.60 
19.75 

430,583 
440,506 

27.71 
23.76 
25.00 

16.22 

16.84 
12.00 

Indiana 

Illinois 

4,929,866 

2,953,594 

1,384,288 

2,030,544 

2,845,846 

1,500,000 

1,455,332 

1,667,652 

150,264 

544,692 

584,060 

2,156,745 

300,000 

1,361,137 

Michigan 

Iowa     

Wisconsin 

Missouri 

Kentucky 

Virginia 

Maryland 

Louisiana 

Tennessee 

North  Carolina. . 

Georgia 

Alabama 

South  Carolina. . 

Mississippi 

Arkansas 

Florida. 

27.02 

14.92 

5.6 

2A5 

2.7 

3.70 
2.77 

4. 
6. 

0.70 
1.27 
0.48 
1.33 
4.08 

25.00 

20.00 

600,000 
2,000,000 

500,000 
2,224,806 

466,000 

Texas 

California 

17,559,521  34 

36,992,016 

296  EDUCATIONAL  STATISTICS. 

We  add  tlie  following  statistics  and  estimates  of 
instruction  in  private  schools,  high-schools,  acade- 
mies, and  boarding-schools,  and  also  the  latest  re- 
turns of  institutions  for  higher  education,  in  order  to 
give  in  one  view  the  magnitude  of  the  educational 
interest  in  the  United  States.  The  estimates  of  the 
number,  attendance,  and  expense  of  the  private 
schools  and  schools  of  higher  grade,  are  deduced 
from  a  careful  examination  of  the  returns  of  these 
schools  in  four  widely  separated  States,  and  are  be- 
lieved to  be  below  rather  than  above  the  truth. 

Number  of  private  schools,  high-schools,  and  academies. . . .  11,500 

Average  mimber  of  pupils,  30  ;  total  number S45,000 

Average  annual  tuition  per  scholar,  $15  ;  total  expenditure.  $4,575,000 

Number  of  boarding-schools 1 ,000 

Average  number  of  pupils,  50  ;  total  pupils 50,000 

Average  annual  expense  of  board  and  tuition,  $150  ;  total. .   $7,500,000 

The  statistics  of  higher  education  are  from  the 
latest  reports : 

Number  of 
Students, 

124  Colleges 13,505 

51  Theological  Institutions 1,520 

17  Law  Schools 1,054 

42  Medical  Schools 4,930 

60  Institutions  for  Blind,  Deaf  and 

Dumb,  and  Idiots 4,000 

20  Scientific    Schools    not     con- 
nected with  colleges 1,200 

$4,408,705 
Add  to  this  the  annual  expenditure  of  private  and  boarding 

schools,  as  above 12,075,000 

And  the  aggregate  annual  expenditure  for  common-schools, 

as  given  in  the  table  above 17,559,521 

And  we  have  the  enormous  aggregate  of. $34,043,226 

as  the  annual  cost  of  education  in  the  United  States. 


ual  Expen. 
•  Student. 

Total 
Expenditures. 

$161 
130 
200 

$2,174,305 
197,600 
210,800 

200 

986,000 

150 

600,000 

200 

240,000 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


A  FULL  bibliography  of  works  on  Education 
would  of  itself  require  volumes,  and  of  course  our 
limits  preclude  any  extended  list.  We  only  pro- 
pose to  indicate  a  few  of  the  sources  from  which  we 
have  derived  the  facts  presented  in  the  foregoing 
treatise,  for  the  use  of  such  of  our  readers  as  may 
be  disposed  to  pursue  the  subject  further. 

Of  works  relating  directly  to  the  History  of  Edu- 
cation, we  would  specify  the  following  as  the  most 
valuable : 

Fritz  (Theodore).  Syst^me  Oomplet  d'Instruction  et  d'Edu- 
cation.    3  vols Strasbourg^  1843, 

SoHWARZ  (J.  G.  C).     Erziehungslehre.     2  vols.  .Leipsic^  1829. 

De  Rianoy.     Histoire  de  la  Liberie  d'Enseignement. . .  .Paris, 

OzANAM.     La  Civilization  au  V*^'"®-  Si^cle,     2  vols Paris. 

De  Viriville.     Instruction  Publique  en  Europe.  .Paris^  1852. 

Perry  (W.  C).    German  University  Education. Zo/i^on,  1845. 

Malden.     Origin  of  Universities London^  1849. 

Schmidt.  History  of  Education.  (Harper's  Family  Li- 
brary)   New  YorK 

Hallam  (Sir  Henry).     History  of  Literature  in  the  15th  and 

16th  Centuries.    American  edition .New  TorTc, 

13« 


298  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

SisMONDi  (J.  0.).     Literature  of  the  South  of  Europe.     Ameri- 
can edition New  Yorh. 

TiCKNOR  (George).     History  of  Spanish  Literature Boston. 

Of  Historical  works  bearing  upon  the  subject  in^ 
cidentally,  the  number  is  yery  great.  The  follow- 
ing as  well  as  many  others  were  consulted : 

NiEBunu's  Ancient  History.     3  vols.     Am.  ed.  .Philadelphia, 

Dew's  Ancient  and  Modern  Nations N'ew  York. 

Xenophon's  Anabasis. 

Geote's  Greece.     Am.  ed.    12  vols New  Yorh, 

Thirl  wall's  Greece.     Am.  ed.    2  vols " 

Niebuhr's  Rome.    Am.  ed.     3  vols Philadelphia. 

Arnold's  Rome.     Am.  ed.     3  vols New  Yorh. 

Liddell's  Rome.     Am.  ed.     1  vol " 

Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall.    Milman's  notes.    6  vols.         " 

Hume's  England.     Am.  ed.     6  vols " 

Maoaulat's  England.     Am.  ed.    4  vols " 

Lingard's  England.    Am.  ed.     13  vols Boston, 

Miohelet's  France.    Am.  ed.     3  vols New  Yorh. 

Kohlratjsoh's  Germany.     1  vol.     Am.  ed " 

Neander's  Church  History.     5  vols.     Am.  ed Boston. 

Mosheim's  Church  History.     3  vols.     Am.  ed New  Yorh, 

Sohaff's  Church  History.     1  vol.     Am.  ed " 

Hase's  Church  History.     1  vol.     Am.  ed " 

Gieseler's  Church  History.     6  vols Edin'burgh. 

Vilson's  India.    1  vol New  Yorh. 

Murray's  India.     1  vol London. 

Williams'  Middle  Kingdom.     1  vol New  Yorh. 

Oulbertson's  Flowery  Land.     1  vol " 

Hildreth's  Japan.     1  vol Boston. 

Perry's  Japab.    1  vol New  Yorh. 

Smyth's  Lectures  on  Modern  History.    2  vols London. 


BIBLIOGKAPHY.  299 

Wilkinson's  Ancient  Egyptians.    2  vols.    Am.  Qdi.,]Sl'eu>  Yorh, 
Kenriok's  Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs.    2  vols.    "  " 

Tenneman's  History  of  Phiilosophy.     1  vol London, 

Lewes'  BiographicaF History  of  Philosophy.    1  Yo\,.N'ew  Yorh, 
Whewell's  History  of  the  Inductive  Sciences.  2  vols.        " 
Pliny  the  Elder's  Natural  History.     Translated  by  Bostoch 

and  Riley London, 

Pliny  the  Younger's  Epistles.     Trans,  by  Melmoth . .       " 

Hallam's  History  of  the  Middle  Ages.     1  vol H^ew  Yorh, 

Prescott's  Conquest  of  Mexico.     3  vols Boston, 

^'  Conquest  of  Peru.     2  vols " 

Conde's  Arabs  in  Spain.     3  vols London. 

In  General  Literature,  Travels,  etc.,  the  following 
with  many  others  have  been  consulted : 

Irving's  (W.)  Mohammed  and  his  Successors.  2  yoh..New  Yorh 

"  *'     Conquest  of  Granada.     1  vol " 

Layard's  Nineveh.     1  vol.     Am.  ed " 

"        Nineveh  and  Babylon.     1  vol. London. 

Loftus' Susiana.     1vol.     Am.  ed New  York, 

Livingston's  Africa.     1  vol.     Am.  ed " 

Ekman's  Siberia    2  vols.     Am.  ed Philadelphia. 

Atkinson's  Siberia.     1  vol.     Am.  ed New  Yorh, 

Barth's  Central  Africa.     3  vols.     Am.  ed " 

Wilson's  Africa.     1  vol " 

Bo  wen's  Central  Africa.     1  vol Charleston, 

Kidder  &  Fletcher's  Brazil.     1  vol Philadelphia, 

Page's  La  Plata.     1  vol New  Yorh, 

Brace's  Norse  Folk.     1  vol " 

Bayard  Taylor's  Travels.     6  vols " 

GiLLiss'  (Lieutenant).     Astronomical  Expedition  to  Chili.    3 
vols Washington. 


300  BIBLIOGBAPHY. 

Of  Biographical  works,  the  following  Biographical 
Dictionaries  have  been  freely  consulted,  as  well  as 
namerous  particular  biographies : 

BioGUAPHiE  GenIirale.    43  vols * . « . » Paris, 

BlOGRAPHlE  UnIYERSELLE.       118  Vols " 

Gorton's  Biographical  Dictionary.     4  vols * . . . .  London* 

Kose's  Biographical  Dictionary.     12  vols * . .       " 

The  English  Cyclopedia — Biographical  Section.   6  vols.    " 
Blake's  Biographical  Dictionary.     New  ed.     1  vol. .  ,,Phita, 
ApPleton's  Cyclopedia  of  Biography.     1  vol N'ew  Yorlc. 

The  following  Periodicals  have  also  been  of  great 
service : 

Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education.    First  series.     5 

vols. Hartford, 

American  Educational  Almanac— 1858 Boston, 

American  Almanac — 1859 " 

Mann's  (Hon.  Horace)  Reports  on  Education — 1838-48.      " 
Educational  Reports  of  Canadian  School  System  and  of  the 

Superintendents  for  1856-7-8 Toronto, 

State  Educational  Periodicals  for  1858. 

Annuaire  d'Education  en  France— 1858 Paris, 

Eeference  has  also  been  made  to  Barnard's 
"Education  in  Europe,"  "Normal  Schools,'^  and 
"Papers  on  Reformatory  Education,"  etc.,  and  to 
several  of  the  works  of  Pestalozzi,  Niemeyer,  Bloch- 
mann,  Diesterweg,  and  others  named  in  the  body  of 
this  work. 


INDEX. 


FA<3« 

AWctis,  The,  used  in  Egypt 36 

A.  B.  C.  shooters 166 

Abelard 165 

Abderrahman  It.  and  III » 109 

Achilles  and  Patrocliis 63 

Agricola,  Eodolphe 185 

Alcuin 14:2 

Aldrovandus 205 

Alexander  the  Great,  a  patron  of  learning 39 

*'                 "          a  pupil  of  Aristotle 81 

Alexandria  renowned  for  its  schools 39,  85 

Alfred  the  Great 146 

Algiers 274 

Antoninus  Pins,  a  founder  of  colleges 96 

Aquinas,  Svmma  Theologia  of. , 156 

*^Arabs,  Education  among  the 101 

^Arabic  numerals  introduced  by  the  Saracens 149 

Argentine  Confederation,  Education  in 286 

Aristotle 80 

Ark,  The  construction  of,  implying  some  education 28 

Arnauld  the  Great ...  * 216 

Ascham,  Roger 196 

Asclepiades 62 

Association  of  the  Ehine 185 

Assyrians  and  Babylonians,  Early  written  language  of. SO 

Athenaeum,  The,  founded  by  Adrian 95 

Athens,  the  resort  of  students 85 

Augustus,  a  patron  of  learning 95 

Australia,  Education  in 276 

Austria,  Education  in » 271 

Babylon  and  Assyria,  Education  in 46 

Bacon,  Francis,  Baron  Verulam 216 

Barbarossa,  Frederic,  a  Troubadour * , ........  173 


302  INDEX. 

FAGB 

Bacchantes 165 

Bavaria,  &c.,  Education  in 271 

Basedow,  J.  B .• 233 

Beauvais,  Vincent  de 168 

Bebel  and  Beatus  Khenanus 185 

Becker 286 

Bede,  The  Venerable 142 

Belon 205 

Benedictine  monks  as  teachers , 152 

Bentley 214 

Bernard  of  Clairvaux 168 

Blochmann's  pedagogical  writings 272 

Boccaccio 175 

Boethius 135 

Bolivia,  Education  in 287 

Bologna,  University  of 151 

Botero,  the  geographer 206 

Brazil,  Education  in 285 

Braidwood,  Thomas 237 

Bracciolini  Poggio 178 

Bretigneres  de  Oourteilles 252 

Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools 228 

Bruchion,  Library  of  the 39 

Buenos  Ayres,  Education  in 286 

Bugenhagen  of  Hamburg 195 

Burmah,  Education  in 275 

Busching 222 

Cain  and  Abel,  Sacrifices  of. 28 

Calmecac,  The Ill 

Calvin,  John 186, 190 

Camden,  author  of  the  Brittania 204 

Canada  East  and  West,  Education  in 279 

Capitularies  of  Charlemagne 144 

Cape  Colony,  Education  in 274 

Cardan,  Jerome 204 

Cassiodorus 134 

Casaubon  of  Geneva 203,  214 

Catechumens,  Schools  for 128 

Cellarius 231 

Ceolfric 141 

Chalcol 56 

Charlemagne 142 

Chartres  and  Citeaux,  Orders  of , 153 

Chansons 173 

,Chi-king,  a  Chinese  text-book 40,  41 

Chile,  Education  in 287 


INDEX.  303 

FAGE 

China,  Education  in 275 

Chinese,  Early  education  among  the 39 

Chinese  literary  examinations 43 

Christian  school  at  Alexandria 127 

Christina  of  Pisa 169 

Chrysoloras,  John  and  Emanuel 176 

Clement  the  Hibernian 144 

Clusius  and  Ceesalpin 206 

Comenius,  John  Amos 208 

Commandin  and  Clavius 204 

Gomnena,  Anna 169 

Comnenus,  Isaac 157 

Colleges,  Origin  of 163 

Coeur  de  Lion,  a  Troubadour 173 

Conrad  Celtes 185 

Con-fut-see 40,  41 

Constantin  and  Calepin's  dictionaries 207 

Connecticut,  Education  in,  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. .  224 

Council  of  Music  in  Mexico 112 

Cordova,  its  university  and  library 109 

Crusades,  their  influence  on  education ; 165 

Cuba,  Education  in 283 

Cusanus,  Nicolas 179 

Cyrus 50 

Dahlberg,  Bishop  John  of 185 

Dante  Alighieri 175 

Darda 56 

De  la  Salle,  Jean  Baptist .  228 

De  Metz 252 

Denmark,  Education  in 267 

Descartes 216 

Diesterweg's  works  on  education 272 

Discipline  of  schools  in  the  thirteenth  century 167 

Domestic  education  among  the  early  Christians 125 

Dominican  Republic,  Education  in 284 

Dringenberg  and  Dalberg 185 

Druids,  their  system  of  education 98 

Ducpetiaux,  Edward 252 

Durer,  Albrecht 205 

Early  Christian  schools 128 

Ecolampadius 186 

Ecuador,  Education  in 284 

Educational  writers  of  Germany 238 

Egypt  4ind  Ethiopia,  education  there  in  early  times 35 

Egypt,  Education  in ^, 27a 


304  INDEX» 

PACK 

Elyot,  Sir  Thomas 196 

England,  Education  in 255 

English  colonies,  Education  in,  during  l7th  and  18th  centuries. ...  226 

Enoch  instructed,  perhaps,  by  Adam 29 

Epee,  Charles  Michel,  Abbe  de  1' 237 

Erasmus,  Desiderius 186 

Ernesti 232 

Ethan  the  Ezrahite 56 

Eudocia,  The  Empress 169 

Felbiger 246,  248 

Fellenberg : 246 

Feltre,  Vittorino  Bambaldini  da 177 

Fenelon,  archbishop  of  Cambray 217 

Fliedner,  Pastor 273 

Florence  de  Radewin 181 

France,  Education  in 258 

Francke,  A.  H 217,218 

Freyer 221 

Galileo,  Galilei 205 

Gassendi 216 

Gerard  de  Groot 1 80 

Gerbert  (Pope  Sylvester  II.) 162 

Germany,  Education  in 269 

Gerson,  Jean  Charlier  de 168 

Gesner,  Conrad 205 

Gesner,  J.  M 231 

Gilbert  describes  the  use  of  the  magnet 205 

Giles,  Rev.  Mr 253 

Girard,  Father 246,  249 

Godefroy 217 

GrsBvius 214 

Greece,  Education  in 61 

Greek  literature,  Introduction  of,  at  Rome 91 

Grocyn 196 

Gronovii,  The 214 

Grotius,  Hugo 216 

Guiana :  French,  Dutch,  and  British,  Education  in 285 

Gutsmuth 236 

Gymnasia  and  Academic  Gymnasia 164 

Hakem  II.,  a  patron  of  learning , 109 

Haroun  Al  Raschid,  a  patron  of  learning 107 

Hauy,  Klein,  and  Zeune 238 

Hayti,  Education  in. 284 

Hebrews,  Education  among  the * . . . . ....  6o 


INDEX.  805 

FAGK 

Hector^s  education ,  * 63 

Heinicke,  Samuel *  4  * 237 

Heman 56 

Herbert  of  Cherbury 216 

Hermolaus  Barbarus 179 

Heyne 232 

Hieronymians 197 

Hispatio-American  States,  Education  in 283 

Hobbes  of  Malmesbury 216 

Hoffman 222 

Homeric  period  of  Greek  education 61 

Hugues  de  St.  Victor 163 

Humanists 231 

India,  its  inhabitants  the  most  highly  educated  of  the  early  nations .     31 

India,  its  system  of  education 32,  33 

India,  present  educational  condition 257 

Ireland,  present  educational  condition 276 

Isidore,  bishop  of  Seville .134,  136 

Jacobs  and  Creuzer 232 

Jacotot,  Method  of 246,  247 

Jamaica,  Education  in 284 

Jansenists,  their  labors  for  the  promotion  of  education 213 

Janua  Linguarum  Reserata,  Tlie 209 

Japan,  Early  education  in 39,  45 

Japan,  present  state  of  education 275 

Jehiel-ben-Hachmoni,  tutor  of  David's  sons 56 

Jesus  as  a  teacher 121 

Jesus,  Society  of,  organized  1540 187  - 

Jesuits,  Teaching  of  the 198-202 

Jewish  scholars  of  the  tenth  century 150 

John  of  Beverley,  bishop  of  Hagulstad 141 

Jubal,  Musical  instruments  invented  by 27 

Justus  Jonas 186 

Karens  and  Shyens,  Education  among 276 

Kempis,  Thomas  a 168 

Kepler 205 

Kromayer  and  Helwig 208 

Lancaster,  Joseph 246,  250 

Landino,  Christopher 179 

Langius,  Rodolphe 185 

Lapland  and  Finland,  Education  in 265 

Lebrexa  Nebrissensis 180 

Liberia 274 


806  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Lloyd  Baker,  T 253 

Locke,  John 216 

"  "     and  Leibnitz 216 

Loyola,  Ignatius 197 

Luther,  Martin 186-189 

Lycurgus,  Spartan  education  devised  by 64 

Maestlin 205 

Magi 48 

Malacca  and  the  Malaysian  Isles,  Education  in 276 

Malebranche 216 

Manutius,  Aldus  and  Paulus 203 

Massachusetts,  Education  in,  during  the  seventeenth  century 224 

Maurolycus  of  Messina 204,  205 

Medici  family,  patrons  of  learning 179 

Melancthon,  Philip 186-189 

Melville,  Andrew,  principal  of  University  of  Glasgow 204 

Mercator 206 

Methodus  Novissima  of  Comenius 211 

TMexico,  Education  in 161 

Michael  Palaeologus 158 

Milton,  John 215 

Minnesingers 171 

/"Mohammed,  his  influence  on  education 108 

Muretus  of  Paris 204 

Mysticism 161 

Naples,  Education  in 263 

Nathan,  a  tutor  of  the  sons  of  David 56 

Neander  of  Nordhausen 195,  207 

New  Brunswick,  Education  in 279 

Newfoundland,  Education  in 279 

New  Grenada 284 

New  Zealand 27T 

Nicolas  v.,  Pope,  patron  of  education 179 

Niemeyer's  works  on  education 272 

Norway,  Education  in 266 

Novum  Organon  of  Lord  Bacon 203 

Oberlin,  J.  F.,  pastor  of  the  Ban  de  la  Eoche 238,  251 

Odescalchi  and  Tata  Giovanni 238 

Odon,  abbot  of  Cluny 153 

Ommiade  and  Abasside  Khalifs,  patrons  of  learning 106 

*'  Orbis  Sensualium  Pictus,"  The 210 

Oriental  languages  taught  in  universities 163 

Origen,  a  Christian  teacher 128 

Origmes,  The,  of  Bishop  Isidore 137 


INDEX.  307 

FAGB 

Orphan  asylums  founded  by  Antoninus  Pius 97 

Orphic  Hymns 62 

Ortelius 206 

Oxford  University,  when  founded 148 

Palatine  school,  The 143 

Palimpsests ,....., 140 

Paper  manufactured  in  Venice 166 

Paraguay,  Education  in , 287 

Paul  as  a  teacher 124 

Paul,  the  Lombard  deacon 144 

Paul,  Vincent  de 238 

Pekin,  Imperial  college  at .   42 

Pelletier  and  Bombelli 204 

Peripatetics,  The 82 

Persians,  Ancient,  Education  among  the 47 

Persian  youth,  how  trained 50,  51 

Persia,  Education  in 275 

Peru,  Education  in 116,  287 

Peruvians,  The,  as  road-builders 118 

Pestalozzi,  J.  H 241 

Peter  of  Pisa 144 

Petrarch 175 

Pirckheimer 185 

Plato 77 

Pol,  M.,  of  Euysselide 252 

Politian,  author  of  the  Miscellanea 179 

Politics,  The,  of  Aristotle 83 

Ponce  de  Leon,  Pedro 185 

Porta,  Baptista,  and  Peruzzi 205 

Porto  Rico,  Education  in '. 284 

Prussia,  Education  in ^ . . .  269 

Puffendorf 216 

Purbach 179 

Pythagoras 70 

Quadrivium,  The 132 

Quintilian,  author  of  pedagogical  works. 97 

*'  Quipu,"  The 116 

Eaikes,  Robert,  and  Fox 238 

Rambach 221 

Ramus,  Peter 204 

Ramusio 206 

Ratich,  Wolfgang 207 

Regiomontanus 179 

Reinold  and  Rothman 205 


808  INDEX. 

PAGIS 

Keiichlin 186 

Khoeticiis,  Joachim 204,  205 

Kocliow 236 

Romans,  Education  among  the  ancient 89 

Roman  historians 93 

Roman  poets 93 

Roman  architecture .' 93 

Rondelet .- 205 

Roscellinus 155 

Russian  education  in  the  middle  ages 158 

Russia,  Education  in 264 

Salerno,  University  of 151 

Salmasius 214 

Sal viani 205 

Salzmann  and  Campe 236 

Sanchez  and  Alvarez  of  Spain 204 

'  Saracen  universities  and  libraries 106,  109 

Sardinia,  Education  in 261 

Sarganeck 221 

Satira  or  Satyricon  of  Capella 132 

Saville,  Sir  Henry 204 

Saxony,  Education  in 270 

Scaligers,  The,  of  Leyden 203 

Scapula 207 

Schwarz,  Works  of,  on  education 272 

Schweighauser 236 

Scotland,  the  first  country  in  Europe  to  provide  for  parish-schools.  227 

Scotland,  Education  in 257 

Scotus,  John  or  Duns,  called  Erigena. 148 

Serapeum,  Library  of* the,  at  Alexandria 39 

Shepherd  Kings  in  Egypt,  their  tyranny 38 

Siam,  Education  in 275 

Sicard,  Abbe 237 

Sierra  Leone,  Education  in 274 

Sigonius  of  Italy 204 

Sirventes,  The 173 

Society  and  Sandwich  Islands 277 

Socrates • 75 

Solomon,  Learning  of 55 

Solon 67 

Spain  and  Portugal,  Education  in 260 

Spalatin  of  Altenburg 195 

Spener,  Philip  J 217,  218 

Spinosa 216 

Steinmetz 222 

Stephens,  the  author  and  publisher  of  the  Thesaurus 207 


INDEX.  309 

PAGE 

Stevinus 205 

Sturm,  John 193 

Suarez 216 

Sudras  prohibited  from  learning  to  read 83 

Sulzer 238 

Sweden,  Education  in 266 

Sylburgius  and  Heyden 195,  207 

Sylvius  ^neas  (Pope  Pius  II.) 178 

Tartaglia 204 

Tartary,  Education  in 275 

Tasmania,  Education  in 277 

Tauler,  John 168 

Text-books  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries 166 

Thibet  and  Tonquin 275 

Trapp 236 

Trinidad 284 

Troubadours  and  Trouveres 171 

Trotzendorf  (Friedland) 194 

Turkey,  Education  in 263 

Turner,  Eev.  Sydney 253 

Tuscany,  Education  in 262 

Tycho  Brahe 205 

Tzabeans 48 

Ubaldi  Guido 205 

United  States,  Education  in 279 

Universities  founded  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries 154 

Uruguay,  Education  in 286 

Valla 178 

Varro,  the  most  learned  man  of  his  time  in  Eome 96 

Vegino,  Mapheus 178 

Vehrli,  Jacob 252 

Venezuela,  Education  in 284 

Verger,  Peter  Paul 178 

Vespasian,  founder  of  the  first  college  at  Eome 95 

Viger  and  Labbe,  authors  of  a  Latin  Grammar 214 

Viller's,  M,,  account  of  the  Jesuits 198 

Vinci,  Leonardo  da 180 

Virginia,  Legend  of 90 

Von  Eaumer's  works  on  education 272 

Werner,  Gustavus 273 

Wernerius,  his  Pandects 152 

West  India  Islands,  Education  in. 283 

Wichern,  J.  H 252 


310  INDEX. 

PACK 

William  of  Champeanx 155 

Wirapheling 185 

Wolke 235 

Wright  and  Gilbert 205 

Wursticius,  Christian 205 

Wurtemberg,  Education  in 270 

Zartusht  or  Zoroaster 53 

Zeller,  brothers,  The 252 

Zend-Avesta,  The 47 

Zeune 233 

Zinzendorf,  Count 237 

Zuinglius 186, 190 


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every  department  of  style.  So  acceptable  has  the  taste  of  the  authors  in  this  de- 
partment proved,  not  only  to  the  educational  public  but  to  the  reading  community 
at  large,  that  thousands  of  copies  of  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  Readers  have  found 
their  way  into  public  and  private  libraries  throughout  the  country,  where  th«y  are 
In  constant  use  as  manuals  of  literature,  for  reference  as  well  as  perusal. 

7.  ARRANGEMENT.  The  exercises  are  so  arranged  as  to  present  constantly 
Ultemating  practice  in  the  difierent  styles  of  composition,  while  observing  a  defi- 
nite plan  of  progression  or  gradation  throughout  the  whole.  In  the  higher  books 
the  articles  are  placed  in  formal  sections  and  classified  topically,  thus  concentra- 
ting the  interest  and  inculcating  a  principle  of  association  likely  to  provp  valu- 
ttble  in  subsequent  general  reading, 

8.  NOTES  AND  BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHES.  These  are  full  and  adequate 
to  every  want.  The  biographical  sketches  present  in  pleasing  style  the  history 
of  every  author  laid  under  contribution. 

9.  ILLUSTRATIONS.  These  are  plentiful,  almost  profuse,  and  of  the  highest 
character  of  art.  They  are  found  in  every  volume  of  the  series  as  far  as  and  in- 
cluding the  Third  Reader. 

10.  THE  GRADATION  is  perfect.  Each  volume  overlaps  its  companion  pre- 
ceding or  following  in  the  series,  so  that  the  scholar,  in  passing  from  one  to  an- 
other, is  only  conscious,  by  the  presence  of  the  new  book,  of  the  transition. 

11.  THE  PRICE  is  reasonable.  The  National  Readers  contain  more  matter 
than  any  other  series  in  the  same  number  of  volumes  published.  Considering 
their  completeness  and  thoroughness  they  are  much  the  cheapest  in  the  market. 

12.  BINDING.  By  the  use  of  a  material  and  process  known  only  to  themselves, 
In  common  with  all  the  publications  of  this  house,  the  National  Readers  are  war- 
ranted to  outlast  any  with  which  they  may  be  compared— the  ratio  of  relative  <to' 
rability  being  in  therir  favor  as  twt)  to  one. 

2 


JVationat  Series  of  Sta7idard  Sc?iool'!Sooks, 

WATSON'S  INDEPENDENT  EEADEES. 


This  Seriss  is  designed  to  meet  a  rjeneral  demand  for  smaller  and  cheapen 
books  than  the  National  Series  proper,  and  to  serve  as  well  for  intermediate  vol- 
umes of  the  National  Eeaders  in  large  graded  schools  requiring  more  hooks  thau 
one  ordinary  series  will  supply. 

B  Dauljy.  The  most  casual  observer  is  at  once  impressed  with  the  unparalleled 
mechanical  beauty  of  the  Independent  Eeaders.  The  Publishers  believe  that  the 
le^Lhetic  tastes  of  children  may  receive  no  small  degree  of  cultivation  frcm  their 
very  earliest  school  books,  to  say  nothing  of  the  importance  of  making  study  tXf 
tractive  by  all  such  artificial  aids  that  are  legitimate.  In  accordance  with  this 
view,  not  less  than  $25,000  was  expended  in  their  preparation  before  publishing, 
with  a  result  which  entitles  them  to  be  considered  '^The  Perfection  of  Common 
School  Eooks." 

S3lGCti0il3,  They  contain,  of  course,  none  but  entirely  now  selections.  Thes« 
are  arranged  according  to  a  strictly  prograssivc  and  novel  method  of  developing 
the  elementary  sounds  in  order  in  the  lower  numbers,  and  in  all,  with  a  view  to 
topics  and  general  literary  style.  The  mind  is  thus  led  in  fixed  channels  to  profi- 
ciency in  every  branch  of  good  reading,  and  the  evil  results  of '  scattering '  as  prac- 
tised by  most  school-book  authors,  avoided. 

Th,3  Illustrations,  as  may  be  inferred  from,  what  has  been  said,  are  elegant 
beyond  comparison.  They  are  profuse  in  every  number  of  the  series  from  the 
lowest  to  the  highest.    This  is  the  only  series  published  of  v/hich  this  is  true. 

Thr)  Typo  is  semi-phonetic,  the  invention  of  Prof.  Watson,  By  it  every 
letter  having  more  than  one  sound  is  clearly  distinguished  in  all  its  variations 
without  in  any  v/ay  mutilating  or  disguising  the  normal  form  of  the  letter. 

ElOOUtiOTl  is  taught  by  prefatory  treatises  of  constantly  advancing  grade  and 
completeness  in  each  volume,  vvhich  are  illustrated  by  wood-cuts  in  the  lower 
books,  and  by  black-board  diagrams  in  the  higher.  Prof.  Watson  is  the  first  to 
introduce  Practical  Illustrations  and  Black-board  Diagrams  for  teaching  this 
branch. 

Foot  Notss  on  cverj'-  page  afibrd  all  the  incidental  instruction  which  the 

teacher  is  usually  required  to  impart.  Indices  of  words  refer  the  pupil  to  the 

place  of  their  first  use  and  definition.  The  Biographies  of  Authors  and  others 
are  in  every  sense  excellent. 

EC0110!Iiy.  Although  the  number  of  pages  in  each  volume  is  fixed  at  the 
minimum,  for  the  purpose  recited  above,  the  utmost  amount  of  matter  available 
without  overcrowding  is  obtained  in  the  space.  The  pages  are  much  wider  and 
larger  than  those  of  any  competitor  and  contain  twenty  per  cent  more  matter  than 
any  other  series  of  the  same  type  and  number  of  pages. 

All  ths  G-reat  Features.  Besides  the  above  all  the  popular  features  of  tha 
National  Readers  are  retained  except  the  Word-Building  system.  The  lattei 
gives  place  to  an  entirely  new  method  of  progressive  development,  based  upon 
•ome  of  the  best  features  of  the  Word  System,  Phonetics  and  Object  Lessons* 


The  A^'atioiial  Series   of  Standard  School-'jBooks, 

NATIONAL    READERS- 


ORIGINAL   AND    ''INDEPENDENT"    SERIES. 
SFi3c;iMi3N  t:dstimonzaz<s. 

Frcrni  D.  H.  Harris,  Bujpt.  Public  Schools,  Hannibal,  Mo. 
Tho  National  Series  of  Readers  are  now  in  use  in  our  public  schools,  and  I  regard 
them  thi  best  that  I  have  ever  examined  or  used. 

From  Hon.  J.  K.  Jillson,  8i(pt.  of  Education,  State  of  South  Carolina. 
I  have  carefully  examined  your  new  and  beautiful  Series  of  Readers  known  as 
"  The  Independent  Readers,"  and  do  not  hesitate  to  recommend  it  as  the  finest  and 
most  excellent  ever  presented  to  the  public. 

From  D.  N.  Rook,  Sec.  of  School  Board,  William^port,  Pa. 
I  would  say  that  Parker  &  Watson's  Series  of  Readers  and  Spellers  give  the  best 
satisfaction  in  our  schools  of  any  Series  of  Readers  and  Spellers  that  have  ever  been 
used.    There  is  nothing  published  for  which  we  would  exchange  them 
From  Prof.  II.  Seele,  New  Braunfels  Academy,  Texas. 
I  recommend  the  National  Readers  for  four  good  reasons  :   (1.)  The  printing,  en- 
graving, and  binding  is  excellsnt.    (3.)  They  contain  choice  selections  from  English 
Literature.    (3.)  They  inculcate  good  morals  without  any  sectarian  bias.    (4.)  They 
arc  truly  National,  because  they  teach  i)urc  patriotism  and  not  sectional  prejudice. 
From  S.  Findlet,  Supi.  Akron  Schools,  Ohio. 
"We  use  no  others,  and  have  no  desire  to.    They  give  entire  satisfaction.    We  like 
the  freshness  and  excellence  of  the  selections.    We  like  the  biographical  notes  and 
the  definitions  at  the  foot  of  the  page.    We  also  like  the  white  paper  and  clear  and 
beautiful  type.    In  short,  we  do  not  know  where  to  look  for  books  which  would  be 
so  satisfactory  both  to  teachers  and  pupils. 

From  Pres.  Robert  Alltn,  McKendree  College,  Bl. 
Since  my  connection  Avith  this  college,  we  haye  used  in  our  preparatory  depart- 
ment the  Series  of  Readers  known  as  the  "National  Readers,"  compiled  by  Parker 
&  Watson,  and  published  by  Messrs.  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.  They  are  excellent ;  afibrd 
choice  selections;  contain  the  right  system  of  elocutionary  instruction,  and  are 
well  printed  and  bound  so  as  to  be  serviceable  as  well  as  interesting.  I  can  com- 
mend them  as  among  the  excellent  means  used  by  teachers  to  make  their  pupils 
proficient  in  that  noblest  of  school  arts.  Good  Reading. 

From  W.  T,  Harris,  Supt.  Public  Schools,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
I  have  to  admire  these  excellent  selections  in  prose  and  verse,  and  the  careful 
arrangement  which  places  first  v/hat  is  easy  of  comprehension,  and  proceeds  gradu. 
ally  to  what  is  dillicult.  I  find  the  lessons  so  arranged  as  to  bring  together  difter- 
cnt  treatments  of  tho  same  topic,  thereby  throwing  much  light  on  the  pupil's  path, 
and  I  doubt  not  adding  greatly  to  his  progress.  The  proper  variety  of  subjects 
chosen,  the  concise  treatise  on  elocution,  the  beautiful  typography  and  substantial 
binding — all  these  I  find  still  more  admirable  than  in  the  lormer  series  of  National 
Readers,  which  I  considered  models  in  these  respects. 

From  n.  T.  Phillips,  Esq.,  of  the  Board  of  Education,  Atlanta,  Ga. 
The  Board  of  Education  of  ihis  city  have  selected  for  use  in  the  public  schools 
of  Atlanta  the  entire  series  of  your  Independent  Readers,  together  with  Steele's 
( ihenWitry  and  Philosophy.  As  a  member  of  the  Board,  and  of  the  Committee  on 
Text-books,  the  subject  of  Readers  was  referred  to  me  for  examination.  I  gave  a 
pretty  thorough  exarnination  to  ten  (10)  diff'erent  series  of  Readers,  and  in  endea- 
voring to  arrive  at  a  decision  upon  the  sole  question  of  merit,  and  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  any  extraneous  influence,  I  very  cordially  recommended  the  Independent 
Series.    This  verdict  was  approved  by  the  Committee  and  adopted  by  the  Board. 

From  Peport  of  Rev.  W.  T.  Brantlt,  D.D..  late  Professor  of  Belles  Leftres,  Univer- 
sity of  Georgia,  on  "  Text-Books  in  Beading,''''  before  the  Teachers'  Conmntion  of 
Georgia,  May  U,  1870. 
The  National  Series,  by  Parker  &  Watson,  is  deserving  of  its  high  reputation. 

The  Primary  Books  are  suited  to  the  weakest  capacity ;  whilst  those  inore  advanced 

Bupply  instructive  illustrgtioA  on  all  that  is  needed  tQ  be  known  in  connection  with 

the  art, 

4 


The  JVational  Series  of  Sta7idard  School-Sooks, 

WATSON'S   CHILD'S   SPELLER. 


THE  mDEPENDENT  CHILD'S  SPELLER. 

I*rice   S5    Cents. 

This  unique  book,  published  in  1872,  is  the  first  to  be  consistently  printed  in 
imitation  of  writing ;  that  is,  it  teaches  orthography  as  wo  use  it.  It  is  for  th« 
smallest  class  of  learners,  who  soon  become  familiarized  with  words  by  their  forma, 
and  learn  to  read  writing  while  they  spell. 

EXTRACT  FROM  THE  PREFACE. 

Success  in  teaching  English  orthography  is  still  exceptional,  and  it  must  so  con- 
tinue until  the  principles  involved  are  recognized  in  practice.  Form  is  foremost : 
the  eye  and  the  hand  must  be  trained  to  the  formation  of  words  ;  and  since  spelling 
is  a  part  of  writing,  the  written  form  only  should  be  used.  The  laws  of  mental 
association,  also— especially  those  of  resemblance,  contrast,  and  contiguity  in  tima 
and  place — should  receive  such  recognition  in  the  construction  of  the  text-book  as 
shall  insure,  whether  consciously  or  not,  their  appropriate  use  and  legitimate  re- 
Eults.  Hence,  the  spelling-book,  properly  arranged,  is  a  necessity  from  the  first ; 
and,  though  primers,  readers,  and  dictionaries  may  serve  as  aids,  it  can  have  no 
competent  leubstitute. 

Consistently  with  these  views,  the  words  used  in  the  Independent  Child's  Speller 
have  such  original  classifications  and  arrangements  in  columns— in  reference  to 
location,  number  of  letters,  vowel  sounds,  alphabetic  equivalents,  and  consonant 
terminations— as  exhibit  most  eflfectively  their  formation  and  pronunciation.  The 
vocabulary  is  strictly  confined  to  the  simple  and  significant  monosyllables  in  com- 
mon use.  He  who  has  mastered  these  may  easily  learn  how  to  spell  and  pronounce 
words  of  more  than  one  syllable. 

The  introduction  is  an  illustrated  alphabet  in  script,  containing  twenty-six  pic- 
tures of  objects,  and  their  names,  commencing  both  with  capitals  and  small  letters. 
Part  First  embraces  the  words  of  one,  two,  and  three  letters ;  Part  Second,  the 
words  of  four  letters ;  and  Part  Third,  other  monosyllables.  They  are  divided  into 
short  lists  and  arranged  in  columns,  the  vowels  usually  in  line,  so  as  to  exhibit  in- 
dividual characteristics  and  similarity  of  formation.  The  division  of  words  into 
paragraphs  is  shown  by  figures  in  the  columns.  Each  list  is  immediately  followed 
by  sentences  for  reading  and  writing,  in  which  the  same  words  are  again  presented 
with  irregularities  of  form  and  sound.  Association  is  thus  employed,  memory 
tested,  and  definition  most  satisfactorily  taught. 

Among  the  novel  and  valuable  features  of  the  lessons  and  exercises,  probably  the 
most  prominent  are  their  adaptedness  for  young  children  and  their  being  printed  in 
exact  imitation  of  writing.  The  author  believes  that  hands  large  enough  to  spin  a 
top,  drive  a  hoop,  or  catch  a  ball,  are  not  too  small  to  use  a  crayon,  or  a  slate  and 
pencil ;  that  the  child's  natural  desire  to  draw  and  write  should  not  be  thwarted, 
but  gratified,  encouraged,  and  wisely  directed ;  and  that  since  the  written  form  ia 
the  one  actually  used  in  connection  with  spelling  in  after-life,  the  eye  and  the  hand 
of  the  child  should  be  trained  to  that  form  from  the  first.  He  hopes  that  this  little 
work,  d*^signed  to  precede  all  other  speUing-books  and  conflict  with  none,  may 
satisfy  the  need  so  universally  recognized  Of  a  fit  introduction  to  orthography,  J***' 
manshlp)  and  iliiglisli  composition. 

5 


The  J\/*ationat  Series  of  Standard  School-^ooks. 


The  National  Readers  and  Spellers. 

THEIR   RECORD. 

These  "books  have  been  adopted  by  the  School  Boards,  or  official  authority,  of 
Jhe  following  important  States,  cities,  and  tov/ns— in  most  cases  for  exclusive  use. 

The   State   of  Minnesota,  The  State  of  Texas. 

The    State    of  Missouri. 

The    State    of   Alabama, 

The   State   of  Worth    Carolina. 
The    State    of   Louisiana. 


ISTsw  York, 

New  York  City. 
Brooklyn. 
Buffalo. 
Albany. 
Rochester. 
Troy. 
Syracuse. 
Elmira. 
&c.,  &c. 

Pennsylvania. 

Reading. 
Lancaster. 
Erie. 
Scranton. 
Carlisle. 
Carbondal";. 
Westchester. 
Schuylkill  Haven. 
Williamsport. 
Norristown. 
Bellefonte. 
Wilkesbarre. 
&c.,  &c. 

Wew  Jersey. 

Newark. 
Jersey  City. 
Paterson. 
Trenton. 
Camden. 
Elizabeth. 
New  Brunswick. 
Phillip  sburg. 
Orange. 
&c.,  &c. 

Delaware, 
Wilmington. 

D.  C. 

Washington. 


Illinois. 

Chicago. 
Peoria. 
Alton. 
Springfield. 
Aurora. 
Gales  burg. 
Rockford. 
Rock  Island. 
&c.,  &c. 

"Wisconsin. 

Milwaukee. 
Fond  du  Lac. 
Oshkosh. 
Janesville. 
Racine. 
Watertown. 
Sheboygan. 
La  Crosse. 
Waukesha. 
Kenosha. 
&c.,  cfcc. 

Michigan, 
Grand  Rapids. 
Kalamazoo. 
Adrian, 
oackson. 
Monroe. 
Lansing. 

&c.,  &c. 

Ohio, 

Toledo. 

Sandusky. 

Conneaut. 

Chardon. 

fludson. 

Canton. 

Salem. 

&c.,  &c. 


Indiana. 
New  Albany. 
Fort  Wayne. 
Lafayette. 
Madison. 
Logan  sport, 
ladianapolis. 

Iowa. 

Davenport. 
Burlington. 
Muscatine. 
Mount  Pleasant, 
&c. 

IQ'ebraska* 
BrownsvUle. 
Lincoln. 

&c. 

Oregon, 

Portland. 
Salem. 
&c. 

Virginia. 
Richmond. 
Norfolk. 
Petersburg. 
Lynchburg. 

&c. 

South  Carolina* 

Columbia. 

Charleston. 

Georgia. 
Savannah. 

Louisiana. 
New  Orleans. 

Tennessee, 
Memphis 


The  Educational  Bulletin  records  periodically  all  new  points  gained 

6 


The  JVationat  Series  of  Standard  Schoot-!Eooks, 

SCHOOL-KOOM  CARDS. 

» > » 

Baade's  Reading  Case, *$io  oo 

A  frame  containing  movable  cards,  with  arrangement  for  showing 
one  sentence  at  a  time,  capable  of  28,000  transpositions. 

Eureka  Alphabet  Tablet *i  50 

Presents  the  alphabet  upon  the  Word  Method  System,  by  which  the 
child  will  learn  the  alphabet  in  nine  days,  and  make  no  small  progress  in 
reading  and  spelling  in  the  same  time. 

National  School  Tablets,  lo  Nos *8  oo 

Embrace  reading  and  conversational  exercises,  object  and  moral  les- 
sons, form,  color,  &c.  A  complete  set  of  these  large  and  elegantly  illus- 
trated Cards  will  embellish  the  school-room  more  than  any  other  article 
of  furniture. 


READING. 

Fowle's  Bible  Reader $100 

The  narrative  portions  of  the  Bible,  chronologically  and  topically  ar- 
ranged, judiciously  combined  with  selections  from  the  Psalms,  Proverbs, 
and  other  portions  which  inculcate  important  moral  lessons  or  the  great 
truths  of  Christianity.  The  embarrassment  and  difficulty  of  reading  tho 
Bi  >le  itself,  by  course,  as  a  class  exercise,  are  obviated,  and  its  use  mado 
feasible,  by  tliis  means. 

North  Carolina  First  Reader ' ^o 

North  Carolina  Second  Reader 65 

North  Carolina  Third  Reader 3  00 

Prepared  expressly  for  the  schools  of  this  State,  by  C.  H.  Wiley,  Super- 
intendent of  Common  Schools,  and  F.  M.  Hubbard,  Professor  of  Litera- 
ature  in  the  State  University. 

Parker's  Rhetorical  Reader 1  00 

Designed  to  familiarize  Readers  with  the  pauses  and  other  marks  in 
general  use,  and  lead  them  to  the  practice  of  modulation  and  inflection  of 
the  voice. 

Introductory  Lessons  in  Reading  and  Elo- 
cution      75 

Of  similar  character  to  the  foregoing,  for  less  advanced  classes. 

High  School  Literature 3  50 

Admirable  selections  from  a  long  list  of  the  world's  best  writers,  for  ex- 
ercise in  reading,  oratory,  and  composition.  Speeches,  dialogues,  and 
model  letters  represent  the  latter  department. 

7 


2yUi  JVationat  Series  of  Standard  Schoot-^Books. 

ORTHOGRAPHY, 

SMITH'S    SERIES 

Supplies  a  speller  for  every  class  in  graded  schools,  and  comprises  the  most  <joni» 
plete  and  excellent  treatise  on  English  Orthography  and  its  companioQ 
branches  extant. 

1.  Smith's  Little  Speller $20 

First  Round  in  the  Ladder  of  Learning. 

2.  Smith's  Juvenile  Definer 45 

Lessons  composed  of  familiar  words  grouped  with  reference  to  similar 
signification  or  use,  and  correctly  spelled,  accented,  and  defined. 

3.  Smith's  Grammar-School  Speller ....     50 

Familiar  words,  grouped  with  reference  to  the  sameness  of  sound  of  syl- 
lables differently  spelled.  Also  definitions,  complete  rules  for  spelling  and 
formation  of  derivatives,  and  exercises  in  false  orthography. 

4.  Smith's  Speller  and  Deflner's  Manual    .     90 

A  complete  School  Dictionary  containing  14,000  words,  with  various 
other  useful  matter  in  the  way  of  Rules  and  Exercises. 

5.  Smith's  Etymology— Small,  75;  Complete  .     1  25 

The  first  and  only  Etymology  to  recognize  the  Anglo-Saxon  our  mothm 
tongue;  containing  also  full  lists  of  derivatives  from  the  Latin,  Greek, 
Gaelic,  Swedish,  Norman,  &c.,  &c  ;  being,  in  fact,  a  complete  etymology 
of  the  language  for  schools. 

Sherwood's  Writing  Speller 15 

Sherwood's  Speller  and  Definer 15 

Sherwood's  Speller  and  Pronouncer    ...     15 

The  Writing  Speller  consists  of  properly  ruled  and  numbered  blanks 
to  receive  the  words  dictated  by  the  teacher,  with  space  for  remarks  and 
corrections.  The  other  volumes  may  be  used  for  the  dictation  or  ordinary 
class  exercises. 

Price's  English  Speller *15 

A  complete  spelling-book  for  all  grades,  containing  more  matter  than 
*'  Webster,"  manufactured  in  superior  style,  and  sold  at  a  lower  price — 
consequently  the  cheapest  speller  extant. 

Northend's  Dictation  Exercises 63 

Embracing  valuable  information  on  a  thousand  topics,  communicated 
in  such  a  manner  as  at  once  to  relieve  the  exercise  of  spelling  of  its  usual 
te4ium,  and  combine  it  with  instruction  of  a  general  character  calculated 
to  profit  and  amuse. 

Wright's  Analytical  Orthography    ....     25 

This  standard  work  is  popular,  because  it  teaches  the  elementary  sounds 
In  a  plain  and  philosophical  manner,  and  presents  orthography  and  or- 
thoepy in  an  easy,  uniform  system  of  analysis  or  parsing. 

Fowle's  False  Orthography 45 

Exercises  for  correction. 

Page's  Normal  Chart. *3  75 

The  elementary  sounds  of  the  language  for  the  scbool-room  walls. 

8 


2'he  JVational  Series  of  Standa7^d  School-^ooks. 

ORTHOGRAPHY-Continued. 

Barber's  Critical  Writing  Speller 20  cts. 

"  The  Student's  Own  Hand-Book  of  Orthography,  Defmitione,  and  Sentences, 
consitting  of  Written  Exercises  in  the  Proper  Spelling,  Meaning,  and  Use  of 
Words."  (Published  1873.)  This  differs  from  Sherwood's  and  other  Writing 
Spellers  in  its  more  comprehensive  character.  Its  blanks  are  adapted  to  writing 
whole  sentences  instead  of  detached  words,  with  the  proper  divisions  for  number- 
ing, corrections,  etc.  Such  aids  as  this,  like  Watson's  Child's  Speller  and  Sher- 
wood's Writing  Speller,  find  their  raison  d'Ure  in  the  postulate  that  the  art  of  cor- 
rect spelling  is  dependent  upon  written,  and  not  upon  spoken  language,  for  its  util- 
ity, if  not  for  its  very  existence.    Hence  the  indirectness  of  purely  oral  instruction. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Smith's  Complete  Etymology, $i  25 

Smith's  Condensed  Etymology, 75 

Containing  the  Anglo-Saxon,  French,  Dutch,  German,  Welsh,  Danish,  Gothic, 
Swedish,  Gaelic,  Italian,  Latin,  and  Greek  Roots,  and  the  English  words  deriv^od 
therefrom  accurately  spelled,  accented,  and  defined. 


From  Hon.  Jno.  G.  McMtnn,  late  State  Superintendent  of  Wisconsin. 
I  wish  every  teacher  in  the  country  had  a  copy  of  this  work. 

From  Prin.  Wm.  F.  Phelps,  Minn.  State  Normal. 

The  book  is  superb— just  what  is  needed  in  the  department  of  etymology  and 
spelling. 

From  Pkof.  C.  H.  Yerrill,  Pa.  State  Normal  School. 

The  Etymology  (Smith's)  which  we  procured  of  you  we  like  much.    It  is  the 
best  work  for  the  class-room  we  have  seen. 

From  Hon.  Edward  Ballard,  Supt.  of  Commmi  Schools,  State  of  Maine. 
Many  a  teacher  who  has  turned  his  attention  to  the  derivation  of  words  has 
rejoiced  in  the  helps  furnished  by  dictionaries  and  smaller  "  hand-books,"  where 
his  taste  could  be  gratified,  and  the  labors  of  patient  students  have  been  available 
to  his  own  improvement.  A  treatise  on  this  subject,  called  "A  Complete  Ety- 
mology of  the  English  Language,"  contains  very  much  information  in  a  small  space. 
The  author,  W.  W.  Smith,  is  evidentljr  a  lover  of  this  branch  of  study,  and  has  fur' 
nished  a  manual  of  singular  utility  for  its  purpose. 


DICTIONARY. 


The  Topical  Lexicon, i  75 

This  work  is  a  School  Dictionary,  an  Etymology,  a  compilation  of  sjTionjTns,  and 
a  manual  of  general  information.  It  differs  from  the  ordinary  lexicon  in  being 
arranged  by  topics  instead  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  thus  realizing  the  apparent 
paradox  of  a  "Readable  Dictionary."    An  unusually  valuable  school-book. 

9 


The  jyatlo7iat  Series  of  Sta^idard  Schooi'2^ooks, 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


CLARK'S   DIAGRAM  SYSTEM. 


Clark's  Beginner's  Grammar, $o  60 

(Published  1872.)  The  Beginner's  Grammar  contains  illustrated  object-lessons 
©f  the  most  attractive  character,  and  is  couched  in  language  freed  as  much  as  pos^ 
sible  from  the  dry  technicalities  of  the  science.  Part  I  is  adapted  to  youngest 
scholars,  and  the  whole  forms  a  complete  "  brief  course  "  in  one  volume. 

This  work  is  designed  to  take  the  place  of  the  same  author's  well-known  "First 
Lessons,"  with  all  the  improvements  which  sixteen  years  of  additional  experience 
and  the  criticisms  of  our  best  teachers  have  suggested.  It  is  fuller,  while  mor-3 
simple,  than  its  predecessor,  more  space  being  given  to  examples  and  exercises. 
The  whole  subject  is  also  more  broadly  treated. 

Clark's  Normal  Grammar, i  oo 

Published  1870,  and  designed  to  take  the  place  of  Prof.  Clark's  veteran  "Prac- 
tical" Grammar,  though  the  latter  is  still  furnished  upon  order.  The  Normal  is 
an  entirely  new  treatise.  It  is  a  full  exposition  of  the  system  as  described  below, 
witk  all  the  most  recent  improvements.  Some  of  its  peculiarities  are— A  happy 
blending  of  Syntheses  with  Analyses  ;  thorough  Criticisms  of  common  errors 
in  the  use  of  our  Language ;  and  important  improvements  in  the  Syntax  of  Sen- 
tences and  of  Phrases. 

Clark's  Key  to  the  Diagrams, i  oo 

Clark's  Analysis  of  Ihe  English  Language, .       60 
Clark's  Grammatical  Chart, *3  75 

The  theory  and  practice  of  teaching  grammar  in  American  schools  is  meeting 
with  a  thorough  revolution  from  the  use  of  this  system.  While  the  old  methods 
offer  proficiency  to  the  pupil  only  after  much  weary  plodding  and  dull  memorizing, 
this  affords  from  the  inception  the  advantage  of  practical  Object  Teaching^  address- 
ing the  eye  by  means  of  illustrative  figures  ;  furnishes  association  to  the  msmory, 
its  most  powerful  aid,  and  diverts  the  pupil  by  taxing  his  ingenuity.  Teachers 
■who  are  using  Clark's  Grammar  uniformly  testify  that  they  and  their  pupils  find  it 
the  most  interesting  study  of  the  school  course. 

Like  all  great  and  radical  improvements,  the  system  naturally  met  at  first  with 
much  unreasonable  opposition.  It  has  not  only  outlived  the  greater  part  of  thin 
opposition,  but  finds  many  of  its  warmest  admirers  among  those  who  could  not 
at  first  tolerate  so  radical  an  innovation.  All  it  wants  is  an  impartial  trial  to  con- 
vince the  most  skeptical  of  its  merit.  No  one  who  has  fairly  and  intelligently 
tested  it  in  the  school-room  has  ever  been  known  to  go  back  to  the  old  method. 
A  great  success  is  already  established,  and  it  is  easy  to  prophecy  that  the  day  is 
not  far  distant  when  it  will  be  the  onlij  system  of  teaching  English  Qrammar.  As 
ihe  System  is  copyrighted,  no  other  text-books  can  appropriate  this  obvious  an^ 
great  improvement. 


Welch's  Analysis  of  the  English  Sentence,  •    i  ^5 

Remarkable  for  its  new  and  simple  classification,  its  method  of  treating  conneo 
tives,  its  explanations  of  the  idioms  and  constructive  laws  of  the  language,  etc. 

10 


The  JVational  Series  of  Stajidard  Schoot-^ooks. 

Clark's  Diagram  English  Grammar. 

TESTIMONIALS. 
Frvm  J.  A.  T.  Duknin,  Principal  Dubuane  R.  C.  Academy,  Iowa. 

In  my  opinion,  it  is  well  calculated  by  its  system  of  analysis  to  develop  those  rational 
faculties  which  in  the  old  systems  were  rather  left  to  develop  themselves,  while  tha 
memory  was  overtaxed,  and  the  pupils  discouraged. 

From  B.  A.  Cox,  School  Commissionery  Warren  County,  Illinois. 

I  have  examined  160  teachers  in  the  last  year,  and  those  having  studied  or  taught 
Clark's  System  have  universally  stood  fifty  per  cent  better  examinations  than  thoac 
kaving  studied  other  authors. 

From  M.  II.  B.  Bueket,  Principal  Masonic  Institute,  Georgetown,  Tennessee. 

I  traveled  two  years  amusing  myself  in  instructing  (exclusively)  Grammar  classci 
with  Clark's  system.  The  first  class  I  instructed  fifty  <lays,  but  found  that  this  wa8 
more  time  than  was  required  to  impart  a  theoretical  knowledge  of  the  science. 
During  the  two  years  thereafter  I  instructed  classes  only  thirty  days  each.  Invariably 
[  proposed  that  unless  1  prepared  my  classes  for  a  more  thorough,  minute,  and  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  English  Grammar  than  that  obtained  from  the  ordinary  books  and 
in  the  ordinary  way  in  from  one  to  two  years,  I  would  make  no  charge.  I  never 
failed  in  a  solitary  case  to  far  exceed  the  hopes  of  my  classes,  and  made  money  and 
character  rapidly  as  an  instructor. 

From  A.  B.  Douglass,  School  Commissioner,  Delaware  County,  New  York. 

I  have  never  known  a  class  pursue  the  study  of  it  under  a  live  teacher,  that  has  not 
succeeded ;  I  have  never  known  it  to  have  an  opponent  in  an  educated  teacher  wh* 
had  tlvoroxujhly  investigated  it;  I  have  never  known  an  ignorant  teacher  to  examine 
it ;  I  have  never  known  a  teacher  who  has  used  it,  to  try  any  other. 

From  J.  A.  DonoK,  Teacher  and  Lecturer  on  English  Grammar,  Kentucky. 

We  arc  tempted  to  assort  that  it  foretells  the  dawn  of  a  brighter  age  to  our  mother- 
tongue.  Both  pupil  and  teacher  can  fare  sumptuously  upon  its  contents,  however 
highly  they  may  have  prized  the  malnuals  into  which  they  may  have  been  initiated, 
and  by  which  their  expressions  have  been  moulded. 

From  W.  T.  Chapman,  Superintendent  Public  Schools,  Wellington,  Ohio. 

I  regard  Clark's  System  of  Grammar  the  best  published.  For  teaching  the  analysis 
of  the  English  Language,  it  surpasses  any  I  ever  used. 

From.  F.  S.  Lyon,  Prijicipal  Sotkth  Norwalk  Union  School,  Connecticut. 

During  ten  years'  experience  in  teaching,  I  have  used  six  different  authors  on  the 
•abject  of  English  Grammar.  I  am  fully  convinced  that  Clark's  Grammar  is  better 
calculated  to  make  thorough  grammarians  than  any  other  that  I  have  seen. 

From  Catalogue  of  Rohbeb's  Commeecial  College,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 

"We  do  not  hesitate  to  assert,  without  fear  of  successful  contradiction,  that  a  better 
knowledge  of  the  English  language  can  be  obtained  by  this  system  in  six  weeks  than 
by  the  old  methods  in  as  many  mouths. 

From,  A.  Pickett,  President  of  the  State  Teacher^  Association,  Wisconsin. 

A  thorough  experiment  in  the  use  of  many  approved  authors  upon  the  subject  of 
English  Grammar  has  convinced  me  of  the  superiority  of  Clarko  When  the  pupil  haa 
ewmpleted  the  course,  he  is  left  upon  a  foundation  of  principle,  and  not  upon  the  dtc 
*!itm  of  the  author. 

From  Geo.  F.  McFakland,  Prin.  McAllisterville  Academy,  Juniata  Co.,  Penn. 

At  the  first  examination  of  public-school  teachers  by  the  county  superintendent, 
when  oneof  our  student  teachers  commenced  analyzing  a  sentence  according  to  Clark, 
the  superintendent  listened  in  mute  astonishment  until  he  had  finished,  then  asked 
what  that  meant,  and  finally,  with  a  very  knowing  look,  said  such  work  wouldn't  do 
here,  and  asked  the  applicant  to  parse  the  sentence  right,  and  gave  the  lowest  certifi- 
cates to  all  who  barely  mentioned  Clark.  Afterwards,  I  presented  him  with  a  copy, 
and  the  next  fall  he  permil  ted  it  to  be  partially  used,  while  the  third  -o"  last  fall,  he 
openly  commended  the  system,  and  appointed  three  of  my  best  tcachcrr  to  explain  it 
at  the  two  Institutes  and  one  County  Convention  held  since  September. 

^T"  For  further  testimony  of  equal  force,  see  the  Publisher*'  Special  (Circular,  es 
«Tirr«»t  uumbors  of  the  Educational  Bulletin. 

11 


The  JV*ationat  Series  of  Standard  Sc/iool-^ooks, 

GEOGRAPHY. 


NATIONAL  GEOGMPHIOAL  SYSTEM. 


THE  SERIES. 

I.  Montelth's  First  Lessons  in  Geography,        .       •       .  $    C5 

II.  Monteith's  New  Manual  of  Geography,          .       .       .  1  10 

III.  McNally's  System  of  Geography, 2  00 

INTERMEDIATE  OR  ALTERNATE  VOLUMES. 

I*.  Montelth's  Introduction  to  Geography, 63 

2*.  Monteith's  Phyeical  and  Political  Geography,    ...  1  88 


ACCESSORIES. 

Monteith's  Wall  Maps  (per  set) *20  00 

Monteith's  Manual  of  Map- Drawing  (Allen's  System)  .  25 
Monteith's  Map-Drawing  and  Object-Lessons,  .  .  75 
Monteith's  Map-Drawing  Scale, *25 

1.  PRACTICAL  OBJECT  TEACHING.  The  infant  scholar  is  first  introduced 
to  a  'picture  whence  he  may  derive  notions  of  the  shape  of  the  earth,  the  phenom- 
ena of  day  and  night,  the  distribution  of  land  and  water,  and  the  great  natural 
divisions,  which  mere  words  would  fail  entirely  to  convey  to  the  untutored  mind. 
Other  pictures  follow  on  the  same  plan,  and  the  child's  mind  is  called  upon  to  grasp 
no  idea  without  the  aid  of  a  pictorial  illustration.  Carried  on  to  the  higher 
books,  this  system  culminates  in  Physical  Geography,  where  such  matters  as 
climates,  ocean  currents,  the  winds,  peculiarities  of  the  earth's  crust,  clouds  and 
rain,  are  pictorially  explained  and  rendered  apparent  to  the  most  obtuse.  The 
illustrations  used  for  this  purpose  belong  to  the  highest  grade  of  art. 

2.  CLEAR,  BEAUTIFUL,  AND  CORRECT  MAPS.  In  the  lower  numbers  the 
maps  avoid  unnecessary  detail,  while  respectively  progressive,  and  affording  the 
pupil  new  matter  for  acquisition  each  time  he  approaches  in  the  constantly  en- 
larging circle  the  point  of  coincidence  with  previous  lessons  in  the  more  ele- 
mentary books.  lu  the  Physical  and  Political  Geography  the  maps  embrace  many 
new  and  striking  features.  One  of  the  most  effective  of  these  is  the  new  plan  for 
displaying  on  each  map  the  relative  sizes  of  countries  not  represented,  thus  obvi- 
ating  much  confusion  which  has  arisen  from  the  necessity  of  presenting  maps  in 
tlie  same  atlas  drawn  on  different  scales.  The  maps  of  "  McNally"  have  long  been 
celebrated  for  their  superior  beauty  and  completeness.  This  is  the  only  school- 
book  in  which  the  attempt  to  make  a  com2)lete  atlas  also  clear  and  distinct,  has 
been  successful.  The  map  coloring  throughout  the  series  is  also  noticeable. 
Delicate  and  subdued  tints  take  the  place  of  the  startling  glare  of  Inharmonioua 
colors  which  too  frequently  in  such  treatises  dazzle  the  eyes,  distract  the  atten- 
tion, and  serve  to  overwhelm  the  names  of  towns  and  the  natural  features  of  the 
Uadscapo. 

vz 


2'he  JVationat  Series  of  Sta7idard  School- 2>ooA:s. 

GEOGRAPHY-Continued. 

3.  THE  VAEIETT  OP  MAP  EXERCISE.  Starting  each  time  from  a  different 
basis,  the  pupil  in  many  instances  approaches  the  game  fact  no  less  than  sict 
timeSy  thus  indelibly  impressing  it  upon  his  memory.  At  the  same  time  this  sys- 
tem is  not  allowed  to  become  wearisome— the  extent  of  exercise  on  each  subject 
being  gi'aduated  by  its  relative  importance  or  difl3^culty  of  acquisition. 

4.  THE  CHARACTER  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  DESCRIPTIVE 
TEXT.  The  cream  of  the  science  has  been  carefully  culled,  unimportant  matter 
rejected,  elaboration  avoided,  and  a  brief  and  concise  manner  of  presentation  cu>-^ 
tivated.  The  orderly  consideration  of  topics  has  contributed  greatly  to  simplicity. 
Due  attention  is  paid  to  the  facts  in  history  and  astronomy  which  are  inseparably 
connected  with,  and  important  to  the  proper  understanding  of  geography— and 
such  only  are  admitted  on  any  terms.  In  a  word,  the  National  System  teaches 
geography  as  a  science,  pure,  simple,  and  exhaustive. 

5.  ALWAYS  UP  TO  THE  TIMES.  The  authors  of  these  books,  editorially 
speaking,  never  sleeo.  No  change  occurs  in  the  boundaries  of  countries,  or  of 
counties,  no  new  discovery  is  made,  or  railroad  built,  that  is  not  at  once  noted 
and  recorded,  and  the  next  edition  of  each  volume  carries  to  every  school-room 
the  new  order  of  things. 

6.  SUPERIOR  G-RADATION.  This  is  the  only  series  which  furnishes  an  avail- 
able volume  for  every  possible  class  in  graded  schools.  It  is  not  contemplated 
that  a  pupil  must  necessarily  go  through  every  volume  in  succession  to  attain 
proficiency.  On  the  contrary,  tuv  will  suffice,  but  three  are  advised ;  and  if  the 
course  will  admit,  the  whole  series  should  be  pursued.  At  all  events,  the  books 
are  at  hand  for  selection,  and  every  teacher,  of  every  grade,  can  find  among  them 
one  exactly  suited  to  his  class.  The  best  combination  for  those  who  wieh  to 
abridge  the  course  consists  of  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3,  or  where  children  are  somewhat  ad- 
vanced in  other  studies  when  they  commence  geography,  Nos.  1*,  2,  and  3.  Where 
but  two  books  are  admissible,  Nos.  l*and  2*,  or  Nos.  2  and  3,  are  recommended. 

7.  FORM  OF  THE  VOLUMES  AND  MECHANICAL  EXECUTION.  The  maps 
and  text  are  no  longer  unnaturally  divorced  in  accordance  with  the  time-honored 
>xactice  of  making  text-books  on  this  subject  as  inconvenient  and  expensive  as 

ossible.  On  the  contrary,  all  map  questions  are  to  be  found  on  the  page  opposite 
-^e  map  itself,  and  each  book  is  complete  in  one  volume.  The  mechanical  execu- 
tion is  unrivalled.  Paper  and  printing  are  everything  that  could  be  desired,  and 
the  binding  is— -A.  S.  Barnes  and  Company's. 

8.  MAP-DRAWING-.  In  1869  the  system  of  Map-Drawing  devised  by  Professor 
Jekome  Allen  was  secured  exclusively  for  this  series.  It  derives  its  claim  to 
originality  and  usefulness  from  the  introduction  of  a  Jlxed  unit  of  measurement 
applicable  to  every  Map.  The  principles  being  so  few,  simple  and  comprehensive, 
the  subject  of  Map-Drawing  is  relieved  of  all  practical  difficulty.  (In  Nos.  2,  2*, 
and  3,  and  published  separately.) 

8,  ANALOGOUS  OUTLINES.  At  the  same  time  with  Map-Drawing  was  also  in- 
troduced (in  No.  2),  a  new  and  ingenious  variety  of  Object  Lessons,  consisting  of  a 
comparison  of  the  outlines  of  countries  with  familiar  objects  piotorially  represented. 

13 


2'he  JVational  Sej^tes  of  Sta?idard  Sc?iool-^ooks, 

GEOGRAPHY-Continued. 

MONTEITH'S  COMPREHENSIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 

I>rice    S1.60. 

This  book  (published  18T2)  is  the  fruit  and  condensation  of  all  the  author's  exp©. 
rience.  It  is  not  an  old  book  revamped— not  an  addition  to  any  series,  but  a  hooU 
hy  itself;  complete,  independent,  comprehensive,  yet  simple,  brief,  cheap,  an 
popular.  A  "  series  "  in  one  volume,  adequate  to  the  entire  common-school  course 
It  presents  the  following  features,  skillfully  interwoven— the  student  learning  aH 
about  one  country  at  a  time. 

SjOCASi  GSSOGRAFH^^  or  the  Use  of  Maps,  of  which  the  w^ork  con- 
tains ninety-eight  distinct  ones.  Important  features  of  the  Maps  are  the  coloring 
of  States  as  objects,  and  the  care  taken  not  to  overcrowd  them  with  names  of 
secondary  importance. 

PHTSICAZfl  GSOGRAFH'S',  or  the  Natural  Features  of  the  Earth, 
illustrated  by  the  original  and  striking  Itelicf  3laps,  being  bird's-eye  views  or 
photographic  pictures  of  the  Earth's  surface. 

SiSSCSISFTIir:^  GSeSRAPH'Sr,  including  the  Physical ;  with  some 
account  of  Governments,  and  Races,  Animals,  etc. 

HISTORICAI.  GSOGRAFH'2'j  or  a  brief  summary  of  the  salient 
points  of  history,  explaining  the  present  distribution  of  nations,  origin  of  geo- 
graphical names,  etc. 

THATHmmATlCAlM  GEGGRAPHlTj  including  Astronomical, 
which  describes  the  Earth's  position  and  character  among  planets  ;  also  the  Zones, 
Parallels,  etc. 

COMFAESATSVE  GEOG-RAFHIT,  or  a  system  of  analogy,  con- 
necting new  lessons  with  the  previous  ones.  Comparative  sizes  and  latitudes  «ro 
shown  on  the  margin  of  each  Map,  and  all  countries  are  measured  in  the  ^^ frame 

of  Kansas.'''' 

T©FSCA£i  O-lSOGRAFHirji  consisting  of  questions  for  review,  and 
testing  the  student's  general  and  specific  knowledge  of  the  subject,  with  sugges* 
tions  for  Geographical  Compositions. 

AS^CI^MT  Gb-^OSHAFKiT-  a  section  devoted  to  this  subject,  with 
Maps,  will  be  appreciated  by  teachers.  It  is  seldom  taught  in  our  common  schools, 
because  it  has  heretofore  required  the  purchase  of  a  separate  book. 

CnAFXIXC  aSIOGRAFKIT,  or  Map-Drawing  by  Allen's  "Unit  of 
Measurement"  system  (now  almost  universally  recognized  as  without  a  rival)  ifj 
introduced  throughout  the  lessons,  and  not  as  an  appendix. 

COI^STRUCTIVE  aEOGRAFHIT,  or  Globe-Making.  With  each 
book  a  set  Of  Map  Segments  is  furnished,  with  which  each  student  may  make  his 
own  Globe  by  following  the  directions  given. 

RAIliItOAD  G£OGZtAFH3rj)  with  a  grand  Map  illustrating  routes 
of  travel  in  the  United  States.    Also,  a  ''Tour  in  Europe." 

14 


The  JVat tonal  Series  of  Standard  Sc?iool-jtlooks^ 

The  National  System  of  Geography, 

By  Moi^TEiTH  &  McNally. 

ITS   KECORD. 

These  popular  text-books  have  been  adopted,  by  official  authority,  for  the 
schools  of  the  following  States  and  Cities  — in  most  cases  for  exclusive  and 
uniform  use. 

STATES. 


California, 

Vermont, 

Florida, 

» 

Missouri, 

Iowa, 

Minnesota, 

Alabama, 

Louisiana, 

,                   North  Carolina, 

Tennessee) 

Oregon, 

Kansas, 

Texas, 

Arkansas, 

Mississippi. 

CITIES. 

New  York  City, 

Louisville, 

Nashville, 

Portland, 

Brooklyn, 

Newark, 

Utica, 

Savannah, 

New  Orleans, 

Milwaukee, 

Wilmington, 

Indianapolis, 

Buffalo, 

Charleston, 

Trenton, 

Springfield, 

Richmond, 

Rochester, 

Norfolk, 

Wheeling, 

Jersey  City, 

Mobile, 

Norwich, 

Toledo, 

Hartford, 

Syracuse, 

Lockport, 

Bridgeport, 

Worcester, 

Memphis, 

Dubuque, 

St.  Paul, 

San  Francisco, 

Salt  Lake  City, 

Galveston, 

Yicksburg, 

&c. 

&c. 

&a 

&c. 

Monteith's  Physical  and  Political  Geography. 

This  is  the  most  recently  published  of  the  Geographical  Series,  and  as  might 
have  been  anticipated,  was  very  warmly  received. 

TESTIMONIALS    IN    BRIEF. 

The  more  I  examine  the  better  I  am  pleased.— J.  T.  Goodnow,  late  ^t.  Sitpf.  Kan. 
Has  no  superior  as  a  text-book.— E.  J.  Thompson,  Supt.  Fillmore  Co.,  Minn. 
Brief,  clear,  suggestive,  and  admirably  adapted.— E.  Conant,  Prin,  Vt.  Normal. 
It  is  a  gem  of  a  book.— E.  A.  Strong,  Supt.  Public  Schools,  Grand.  Rapids,  Mich, 
The  best  adapted  we  have  seen.— O.  Faville,  late  State  Supt.,  Iowa. 
A  book  that  has  long  been  needed.— A.  J.  Kingman,  Supt.  McHenry  Co.,  111. 
Prepared  with  labor,  care,  and  well  adapted.— C.  B.  llAijS>n-EAJi,Supt.Newburg,N'.Y. 
The  best  Geography  ever  published.— J.  Hutchison,  Prin.  Boys'" Sch.  J^erson,  La. 
I  like  it  very  much. — A.  J.  Craig,  late  State  Supt.,  Wisconsin. 
Cannot  fail  to  awaken  a  new  mtQvc^i.— Vermont  School  Journal.  [Coll.,  Va, 

A  new  field  cultivated  with  great  success.— T.  C.  Johnson,  Pres.  Randolph  ?^acon. 
Contains  more  common  sense  than  any  other.— J.  Ange  ar,  Prin,  Madison  Ac%wQ, 

16 


7*he  JVatlonal  Ser^les  of  Sta7iclard  Sc?iool-^ooks, 

Monteith  &  McNally's  National  Geographies. 

CRITICAL    OPINIONS. 
From  R.  A.  Adatos,  Member  of  Board  of  Education^  New  York. 

I  have  founds  1)y  examination  of  the  Book  of  Supply  of  our  Board,  that  consid' 
crably  the  largest  numher  of  any  series  now  used  in  our  public  schools  is  th<! 
2^ational,  by  Monteith  and  McNally. 

From  Bro.  Patrick,  Chief  Provincial  of  the  Vast  Educational  Society  of  the 
Christian  Brcthees  in  the  United  States, 

Having  been  convinced  for  some  tiiae  past  that  the  series  of  Geographies  i:? 
nee  in  our  schools  were  not  giving  satisfaction,  and  came  far  short  of  meeting" 
our  most  reasonable  expectations,  I  have  felt  it  my  imperative  duty  to  esamint 
into  this  matter,  and  see  if  a  remedy  could  not  be  found. 

Copies  of  the  diflferent  Geographies  published  in  this  country  have  been  placci 
at  our  command  for  examination.  On  account  of  other  pressin<j  duties  we  havJ 
not  been  able  to  give  as  much  time  to  the  investigation  of  all  these  different  serici 
as  we  could  have  desired ;  yet  we  have  found  enough  to  convince  us  that  there  arc 
many  others  better  than  those  we  are  now  using ;  but  we  cheerfully  give  our  most 
decided  preference,  above  all  others,  to  the  National  Series,  by  Monteith  &  McNally. 

Their  easy  gradation,  their  thoroughly  practical  and  independent  character, 
their  comprehensive  completeness  as  a  full  and  accurate  system,  the  wise  dis- 
crimination shown  in  the  selection  of  the  subject  matter,  the  beautiful  and  copious 
illustrations,  the  neat  cut  type,  the  general  execution  of  the  works,  and  other  ex^ 
cellendes^  will  commend  them  to  the  friends  of  education  everywhere. 

From  the  "Home  Montklt,"  NashvilU,  Tenn. 
Monteith's  and  McNally's  Geographies. — Geography  is  so  closely  con- 
nected with  Astronomy,  History,  Ethnology,  and  Geology,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
define  its  limito  in  the  construction  of  a  text-book.  If  the  author  confines  himself 
strictly  to  a  description  of  the  earth's  surface,  his  book  will  be  dry,  meager,  and 
nnintelligible  to  a  child.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  attempts  to  give  information 
on  the  cognate  sciences,  he  enters  a  boundless  field,  and  may  wander  too  far.  It 
eeems  to  us  that  the  authors  of  the  series  before  us  have  hit  on  the  happy  medium 
between  too  much  and  too  little.  The  First  Lessons^  by  applying  the  system  of 
object-teaching,  renders  the  subject  so  attractive  that  a  child,  just  able  to  read, 
?nay  become  deeply  interested  in  it.  The  second  book  of  the  course  enlarges  tho 
view,  but  still  keeps  to  the  maps  and  simple  descriptions.  Then,  in  the  third 
book,  we  have  Geography  combined  with  History  and  Astronomy.  A  general 
view  of  tiie  solar  system  is  presented,  so  that  the  pupil  may  understand  the 
earth's  position  on  the  map  of  the  heavens.  The  first  part  of  the  fourth  book 
treats  of  Physical  Geography,  and  contains  a  vast  amount  of  knowledge  com- 
pressed into  a  small  space.  It  is  made  bright  and  attractive  by  beautiful  pictures 
and  suggestive  illustrations,  on  the  principle  of  object-teaching.  The  maps  in 
the  second  part  of  this  volume  are  remarkably  clear,  and  the  map  exercises  arc 
copious  and  judicious.  In  the  fifth  and  last  volume  of  the  series,  the  whole  sub- 
ject is  reviewed  and  systematized.  This  is  strictly  a  Geography.  Its  maps  arc 
beautifully  engraved  and  clearly  printed.  The  map  exercises  are  full  and  com- 
prehensive. In  all  these  books  the  maps,  questions  and  descriptions  are  given  in 
the  same  volume,  in  most  geogrnphies  there  are  too  many  details  and  minute 
descriptions— more  than  any  child  out  of  purgatory  ought  to  be  required  to  learn. 
The  power  of  memory  is  overstrained ;  there  is  confusion— no  clearly  defined  idea 
is  formed  in  the  child's  mind.  But  in  these  books,  in  brief,  pointed  descriptions, 
and  constant  nse  of  bright,  accurate  maps,  the  whole  subject  is  photographed  en 
the  mind.  16 


The  J^atlo7iat  Series  of  Staiidard  Schoot-^ooks. 


MATHEMATICS. 


DAVIES'  NATIONAL  COURSE. 


ARITHMETIC. 

I.  Davies'  Primary  Arithmetic, $  25  $    32 

2.  Davies'  Intellectual  Arithmetic, 40  48 

3.  Davies'  Elements  of  Written  Arithmetic, .    .    ,    .  50  60 

4.  Davies'  Practical  Arithmetic, 90  1  00 

Key  to  Practical  Arithmetic, 90 

5.  Davies'  University  Arithmetic, 1  40      1  50 

Key  to  University  Arithmetic, *1  40 

ALGEBRA. 

I.  Davies'  New  Elementary  Algebra, *1  25      1  35 

Key  to  Elementary  Algebra, *1  25 

2.  Davies'  University  Algebra, 1  50      1  60 

Key  to  University  Algebra *1  50 

3.  Davies'  New  Bourdon's  Algebra, 2  25      2  38 

Key  to  Bourdon's  Algebra, *2  25 

G-EOMETRY. 

1.  Davies'  Elementary  Geometry  and  Trigonometry,  1  40  1  50 

2.  Davies'  Legendre's  Geometry, 2  25  2  38 

3.  Davies'  Analytical  Geometry  and  Calculus,  ...  2  50  2  63 

4.  Davies'  Descriptive  Geometry, 2  75  2  88 

5.  Davies'  New  Calculus, 2  00 

MENSURATION. 

f.  Davies'  Practical  Mathematics  and  Mensuration, .    1  50      1  60 

2.  Davies'  Elements  of  Surveying, 2  50      2  63 

3.  Davies'  Shades,  Shadows,  and  Perspective,.    .    .    3  75      3  88 

MATHEMATICAL    SCIENCE. 

Davies'  Grammar  of  Arithmetic, *    50 

Davies'  Outlines  of  Mathematical  Science, *1  00 

Davies'  Nature  and  Utility  of  Mathematics,  8vo,  *2  00, 12mo,     n  50 

Davies'  Metric  System, -1  50 

Davies  &  Peck's  Dictionary  of  Mathematics, *5  00 

Davies'  Foundations  Mathematical  Science, *    25 

17 


J^^atlo7iat  Series  of  Standard  School-^ooks* 

DAVIES'  NATIONAL  OOUESE  of  MATHEMATICS, 

ITS     RECORD. 

In  claiming  for  this  series  the  first  place  among  American  text-books,  of  what 
ever  class,  the  Publishers  appeal  to  the  magnificent  record  which  its  volume* 
have  earned  during  the  thirty-Jive  years  of  Dr.  Charles  Davies'  mathematical 
labors.  The  unremitting  exertions  of  a  life-time  have  placed  the  modern  series  on 
the  same  proud  eminence  among  competitors  that  each  of  its  predecessors  hail 
euccessively  enjoyed  in  a  course  of  constantly  improved  editions,  now  rounded  tc 
their  perfect  fruition — for  it  seems  almost  that  this  science  is  susceptible  of  na 
further  demonstration. 

During  the  period  alluded  to,  many  authors  and  editors  in  this  department  have 
started  into  public  notice,  and  by  borrowing  ideas  and  processes  criejinal  with  Dr. 
Davies,  have  enjoyed  a  brief  j  opularity,  but  arc  now  almost  unknown.  Many  of 
the  series  of  to-day,  built  upon  a  similar  basis,  and  described  as  "  modern  books," 
are  destined  to  a  similar  fate ;  while  the  most  far-seeing  eye  will  find  it  difficult  to 
fix  the  time,  on  the  basis  of  any  data  afi'orded  by  their  past  history,  when  these 
books  will  cease  to  increase  and  prosper,  and  fix  a  still  firmer  lu'ld  on  the  afiection 
of  every  educated  American. 

One  cause  of  this  unparalleled  popularity  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  enterprise 
of  the  author  did  not  cease  with  the  original  completica  of  his  books.  Always  a 
practical  teacher,  he  has  incorporated  in  his  text-books  from  time  to  time  the  ad- 
vantages of  every  improvement  in  methods  of  teaching,  and  every  advance  in 
science.  During  all  the  years  in  which  he  has  been  laboring,  he  constantly  sub- 
mitted his  own  theories  and  those  of  others  to  the  practical  test  of  the  class-room 
—approving,  rejecting,  or  modifying  them  as  the  experience  thus  obtained  might 
suggest.  In  this  way  he  has  been  able  to  produce  an  almost  perfect  series  of 
class-books,  in  which  every  department  of  mathematics  has  received  minute  and 
exhaustive  attention. 

Nor  ha&  he  yet  retired  from  the  field.  Still  in  the  prime  of  life,  and  enjoying  a 
ripe  experience  which  no  other  living  mathematician  or  teacher  can  emulate,  his 
pen  is  ever  ready  to  carry  on  the  good  work,  as  the  progress  of  science  may  de- 
mand. Witness  his  recent  exposition  of  the  "  Metric  System,"  which  received 
the  offlcial  endorsement  of  Congress,  by  its  Committee  on  Uniform  Weights  and 
Measures. 

Davies'  System  is  the  acknowledged  I^ational  Standard  for  the 
United  States,  for  the  following  reasons  :~ 

1st.  It  is  the  basis  of  instruction  in  the  great  national  echoola  at  West  Point 
and  Annapolis, 

2d.    It  has  received  the  quad  endorsement  of  the  National  Congress. 

3d.    It  is  exclusively  tPsed  in  the  public  schools  of  the  National  Capital. 

4th.  The  officials  of  the  Government  use  it  as  authority  in  all  cases  involving 
mathematical  questions. 

5th.  Our  great  soldiers  and  gailors  commanding  tho  national  armies  and  navies 
were  educated  in  this  system.  So  have  been  a  majority  of  eminent  scientists  in 
this  country.    All  these  refer  to  "  Davies  "  as  authority. 

6th.  A  larger  number  of  American  citizens  have  received  their  education  frc^ 
this  than  from  any  other  series. 

7th.  The  series  has  a  larger  circulation  throughout  the  whole  country  than  any 
other,  being  extensively  used  in  every  State  in  the  Union. 

18 


J^at tonal  Se?y:es  of  h'taiidard  School-^ooks. 

Davies'  National  Course  of  Mathematics« 

TESTIMOnsriALS. 

Fr(yn%  L.  Van  Bokkelen,  State  Superintendent  Public  Instruction^  Maryland. 

The  series  of  Arithmetics  edited  by  Prof.  Davies,  and  puljlished  by  your  firm. 
;iave  been  used  for  many  years  in  the  schools  of  several  counties,  and  the  city  ol 
Baltimore,  and  have  been  approved  by  teachers  and  commissioners. 

Under  the  law  of  1005,  establishing  a  uniform  system  of  Free  Public  Schools, 
these  Arithmetics  v/ero  unanimously  adopted  by  the  State  Board  of  Education, 
after  a  careful  examination,  and  are  now  used  in  all  the  Public  Schools  of  Mary- 
land. 

These  facts  evidence  the  hi^h  opinion  entertained  by  the  School  Authorities  oi 
the  value  of  the  series  theoretically  and  practically. 

From  noRACB  Webster,  President  of  the  College  of  New  YorJc. 
The  undersigned  has  examined,  with  care  and  thought,  several  volumes  of  Da- 
vies'  Mathematics,  and  is  of  the  opinion  thac,  as  a  v/holc,  it  is  the  most  complete 
and  best  course  for  Academic  and  Collegiate  instruction,  with  which  he  is  ac- 
quainted. 

From  David  N.  Cajip,  State  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools,  Connecticut. 

I  have  examined  Davies'  Series  of  Arithmetics  with  some  care.  The  language 
is  clear  and  precise ;  each  principle  is  thoroughly  analyzed,  and  the  whole  so  ar. 
ranged  as  to  facilitate  the  v/ork  of  instruction.  Having  observed  the  satisfaction 
and  success  vnth  which  the  different  books  have  been  used  by  eminent  teachers, 
it  gives  me  pleasure  to  commend  them  to  others. 

From  J.  O.  Wilson,  Chairman  Committee  on  Text-BooJcs^  Washington,  D.  C, 
I  consider  Davies'  Arithmetics  decidedly  superior  Vo  any  other  series,  and  in 
this  opinion  I  am  sustained,  I  believe,  by  the  entire  Board  of  Education  and  Corps 
of  Teachers  in  this  city,  where  they  have  been  used  lor  eqveral  years  past. 

From  John  L.  Caiipbell,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Wabash  College,  Indiaria. 
A  proper  combination  of  abstract  reasoning  and  practical  illustration  is  the 
chief  excellence  in  Prof.  Davies'  Mathematical  works.  I  prefer  his  Arithmetics, 
Algebras,  Geometry  and  Trigonometry  to  all  others  now  in  use,  and  cordially  re. 
commend  them  to  all  who  desire  the  advancement  of  sound  learning. 

From  Major  J.  H.  Whittlesey,  Government  Inspector  cf  Military  Schools. 

Be  assured,  I  regard  the  works  of  Prof.  Davies,  with  which  I  am  acquainted,  a3 
hy  far  the  best  text-books  in  print  on  the  subjects  which  they  treat.  I  shall  cer- 
tainly encourage  their  adoption  wherever  a  word  from  mo  may  be  of  any  avail. 

From  T.  McC.  Ballai^^tine,  Prof.  Mathematics  Cumberland  College,  Kentuclzy. 
\  have  long  taught  Prof.  Davies'  Course  of  Mathematics,  and  I  continue  to  like 
crheir  working. 

From  John  McLeait  Bell,  B.  A.,  Prin.  cf  Lower  Canada  College. 

I  hare  used  Davies'  Arithmetical  and  Mathe'matical  Series  as  text-books  in  the 
schools  under  my  charge  for  the  last  six  years.  These  I  have  found  of  great  efli- 
cacy  in  exciting,  invigorating,  and  concentrating  the  intellectual  faculties  of  th© 
young. 

Each  treatise  serves  as  an  introduction  to  the  next  higher,  by  the  similarity  of 
its  reasonings  and  methods ;  and  the  student  is  carried  forward,  by  easy  and 
gradual  steps,  over  tho  whole  field  of  mathematical  inquiry,  and  that,  too,  in  a 
shorter  time  than  is  usually  occupied  in  mastering  a  single  department,  I  sincere- 
ly  and  heartily  recommend  them  to  the  attention  of  my  fellow-teachers  in  Canada. 

From  D.  W.  Steele,  Prin.  Philekoian  Academy,  Cold  Springs,  Texas. 
I  have  used  Davies'  Arithmetics  till  I  know  them  nearly  by  heart,    A  better 
•jeries  of  school-books  never  were  published,    I  have  recommended  them  until 
they  are  now  used  in  all  this  region  of  country. 


A  large  mass  of  similar  "  Opinions  "  may  be  obtained  by  addreseuig'  tho  pub- 
lishers for  special  circular  for  Davies'  Mathematics.  New  recommendations  art 
irttblished  in  current  numbers  of  the  Fducatlonal  BuUetin. 

19 


The  J\rati07tal  Series  of  Standard  Schoot-^ooks. 

MATHEMATICS-Continued. 

ARITHMETICAL    EXAMPLES. 

Reuck's  Examples  in  Denominate  Numbers  %    so 
Reuck's  Examples  in  Arithmetic i  OG 

These  volumes  diflfel  from  the  ordinary  arithmetic  in  their  peculiarly 
practical  character.  They  are  composed  mainly  of  examples,  and  afford 
the  most  severe  and  thorough  discipline  for  the  mind.  While  a  book 
which  should  contain  a  complete  treatise  of  theory  and  practice  would  be 
too  cumbersome  for  every-day  use,  the  insuflSciency  of  practical  examples 
has  been  a  source  of  complaint. 

HIGHER     MATHEMATICS. 

Church's  Elements  of  Calculus 2  50 

Church's  Analytical  Geometry 2  50 

Church's  Descriptive  Geometry,  with  Shades, 

Shadows,  and  Perspective 4  00 

These  volumes  constitute  the  "  "West  Point  Course"  in  their  several 
departments. 

Courtenay's  Elements  of  Calculus    .    .    .   .  3  oo 

A  werk  especially  popular  at  the  South. 

Hackley's  Trigonometry    ........  2  50 

With  applications  to  navigation  and  surveying,  nautical  and  practical 
geometry  and  geodesy. 

Peck's  Analytical  Geometry i  76 

Peck's  Practical  Calculus .175 

APPLIED    MATHEMATICS. 

Peck's  Ganot's  Popular  Physics i  75 

Peck's  Elements  of  Mechanics    .....    2  oo 

Peck's  Practical  Calculus i  '^^ 

Peck's  Analytical  Geometry, 1*^5 

Prof  W.  G.  Peck,  of  Columbia  College,  has  designed  the  first  of  these  works  for 
the  ordinary  wants  of  schools  in  the  department  of  "Natural  Philosophy.  The 
other  volumes  are  the  briefest  treatises  on  those  subjects  now  published.  Their 
methods  are  purely  practical,  and  unembarrassed  by  the  details  which  rather  con- 
fuse than  simplify  science, 

SLATED    ARITHMETICS. 

This  consists  of  the  application  of  an  artificially  slated  surface  to  the  inner  cover 
of  a  book,  with  flap  of  the  same  opening  outward,  so  that  students  may  reier  to 
the  book  and  use  the  slate  at  one  and  the  same  time,  and  as  though  the  slate  were 
detached.  When  folded  up,  the  slate  preserves  examples  and  memoranda  tiL 
needed.  The  material  used  is  as  durable  as  the  stone  slate,  TbQ  additional  cost  • 
of  books  thus  improved  is  trifling, 

20 


JTie  j\/^atio7ial  Series  of  Standard  Schoot-^ooks. 

HISTORY. 


Monteith's  Youth's  History, .$    75 

A  History  of  the  United  States  for  beginners.    It  is  arranged  upon  th«  j 

catechetical  plan,  with  illustrative  maps  and  engravings,  review  questions, 
dates  in  parentheses  (that  their  study  may  be  optional  with  the  younger 
class  of  learners),  and  interesting  Biographical  Sketches  of  all  persons 
who  have  been  prominently  identified  with  the  history  of  our  country. 

Willard's  United  States,  School  edition,   .   .   .    i  40 

Do.  do.  University  edition,      .  2  25 

The  plan  of  this  standard  work  is  chronologically  exhibited  in  front  of 
the  title-page ;  the  Maps  and  Sketches  are  found  useful  assistants  to  the 
memory,  and  dates,  usually  so  difficult  to  remember,  are  so  systematically 
arranged  as  in  a  great  degree  to  obviate  the  difficulty.  Candor,  impar- 
tiality, and  accuracy,  are  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  narrative 
portion, 

Willard's  Universal  History, 2  25 

The  most  valuable  features  of  the  "  United  States"  are  reproduced  in 
this.  The  peculiarities  of  the  work  are  its  great  conciseness  and  the 
prominence  given  to  the  chronological  order  of  events.  The  margin 
marks  each  successive  era  with  great  distinctness,  so  that  the  pupil  re- 
tains not  only  the  event  but  its  time,  and  thus  fixes  the  order  of  history 
firmly  and  usefully  in  his  mind.  Mrs.  Willard's  books  are  constantly 
revised,  and  at  all  times  written  up  to  embrace  important  historical 
events  of  recent  date. 

Berard's  History  of  England, 1  75 

By  an  authoress  well  known  for  the  success  of  her  History  of  the  United 
States.  The  social  life  of  the  English  people  is  felicitously  interwoven, 
as  in  fact,  with  the  civil  and  military  transactions  of  the  realm. 

Ricord's  History  of  Rome, i  75 

Possesses  the  charm  of  an  attractive  romance.  The  Fables  with  which 
this  history  abounds  are  introduced  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  deceive  the 
inexperienced,  while  adding  materially  to  the  value  of  the  work  as  a  reli- 
able index  to  the  character  and  institutions,  as  well  as  the  history  of  the 
Roman  people. 

Hanna's  Bible  History, i  23 

The  only  compendium  of  Bible  narrative  which  affords  a  connected  and 
chronological  view  of  the  important  events  there  recorded,  divested  ©f  all 
superfluous  detail. 

Summary  of  History,  Complete 60 

American  History,  $0  40.    French  and  Eng.  Hist.         35 

A  well  proportioned  outline  of  leading  events,  condensing  the  substance  of  the 
more  extensive  text-book  in  common  use  into  a  series  of  statements  so  brief,  thAt 
every  word  may  be  committed  to  memory,  and  yet  so  comprehensiTe  that  it 
presents  an  accurate  though  general  view  of  the  whole  continuous  life  of  nacions. 

Marsh's  Ecclesiastical  History, 2  oo 

Questions  to  ditto, 75 

Affording  the  History  of  the  Church  in  all  ages,  with  accounts  of  the 
pagan  world  during  Biblical  periods,  and  the  character,  rise,  and  progress 
of  all  Religions,  as  well  as  the  various  sects  of  the  worshipers  of  Christ. 
The  work  is  entirely  non-sectarian,  though  strictly  catholic. 

Mill's  History  of  the  Jews, l  75 

21 


The  A^'allojial  Series  of  Sta7ida7*d  School- 2jooks, 

HiSTORY-Continued. 

BARNES'  ONE-TERM  HISTORY. 
A  Brief  History  of  the  United  Stales,  •    •   41  50 

This  is  probably  the  most  okiginal  school-book  published  for  many  years, 
in  any  department.    A  lew  of  its  claims  are  the  following: 

1.  Brevity- —The  text  is  complete  for  Grammar  School  or  intermediate 
classes,  in  290  12mo  pages,  large  type.  It  may  readily  be  completed,  if  desired,  in 
one  term  of  study. 

2.  Comprehensiveness.— Though  bo  brief,  this  book  contains  the  pith  of  al] 
the  wearying  contents  of  the  larger  manuals,  and  a  great  deal  more  than  the  mem- 
ory usually  retains  from  the  latter. 

3.  Interest  has  been  a  prime  consideration.  Small  books  have  heretofore 
been  bare,  full  of  dry  statistics,  unattractive.  This  one  is  charmingly  written, 
replete  with  anecdote,  and  brilliant  with  illustration. 

4.  Proportion  of  Events.— it  is  remarkable  for  the  discrimination  with 
which  the  different  portions  of  our  history  are  presented  according  to  their  im- 
portance. Thus  the  older  works  being  already  large  books  when  the  civil  war 
took  place,  give  it  less  space  than  that  accorded  to  the  Eevolution. 

5.  Arrani^ement.— In  six  epochs,  entitled  respectively.  Discovery  and  Settle- 
ment, the  Colonics,  the  Eevolution,  Growth  of  States,  the  Civil  War,  and  Current 
Events. 

6.  Catch  Word:^. — Each  paragraph  is  preceded  by  its  leading  thought  in 
prominent  type,  slt^nding  in  the  student's  mind  for  the  whole  paragraph. 

7.  Key  Notes.— Analogous  with  this  is  the  idea  of  grouping  battles,  etc., 
about  some  central  event,  which  relieves  the  sameness  so  common  in  such  de- 
scriptions, and  renders  each  distinct  by  some  striking  peculiarity  of  its  own. 

8.  Foot  Notes.— These  are  crowded  with  interesting  matter  that  is  not 
strictly  a  part  of  history  proper.  They  may  be  learned  or  not,  at  pleasure.  They 
are  certain  in  any  event  to  be  read. 

9.  Biographies  of  all  the  leading  characters  are  given  in  full  in  foot-notes. 

10.  Maps. — Elegant  and  distinct  Maps  from  engravings  on  copper-plate,  and 
beautifully  colored,  precede  each  epoch,  and  contain  all  the  places  named. 

11.  Questions  are  at  the  back  of  the  book,  to  compel  a  more  independent  use 
f  f  the  text.  Both  text  and  questions  are  so  worded  that  the  pupil  must  give  in- 
\  Jlligent  answers  in  his  own  words.    ''  Yes  "  and  "No  "  will  not  do. 

12.  Historical  Recreations.— These  are  additional  questions  to  test  the  stu- 
dent's knowledge,  in  review,  as :  ''What  trees  are  celebrated  in  our  history?" 
"  When  did  a  fog  save  our  army  ?  "  ''  What  Presidents  died  in  office  ? "  "  When 
was  the  Mississippi  our  western  boundary  ?  "  *'  Who  said,  '  I  would  rather  be 
right  than  President  ? '  "  etc. 

13.  The  Ilhistrations,  about  seventy  in  number,  are  the  work  of  our  best 
artists  and  enj^ravers,  produced  at  great  expense.  They  are  vivid  end  interest- 
ing, and  mostly  upon  subjects  never  before  illustrated  in  a  school-book. 

14.  Dat3S,— Only  the  leading  dates  are  given  in  the  text,  and  these  are  so 
associated  as  to  assist  the  memory,  but  at  the  head  of  each  page  is  the  date  of  the 
event  first  mentioned,  and  at  the  close  of  each  epoch  a  summary  of  events  and  dates. 

15.  The  PhilosO'Ohv  of  History  is  studiously  exhibited— the  causes  and 
effects  of  events  being  distinctly  traced  and  their  interconnection  shown. 

13.  Impartiality.  —  All  sectional,  partisan,  or  denominational  views  are 
avoided.  Facts  are  stated  after  a  careful  comparison  of  ail  authorities  without 
the  least  prejudice  or  favor. 

17.  IndeS.— A  verbal  ?udex  at  the  close  of  the  book  perfects  it  as  a  work  of 
reference. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  above  are  all  particulars  ih  which  School  Histories 
have  been  signally  defective,  or  altogether  wanting.  Many  other  claims  to  favor 
^t  shares  in  comnis'n  with  its  predecessors. 

23 


The  jyattonat  Series  of  Standa7*d  School-^Sooks, 

BAENES'  BRIEF  UNITED  STATES  HISTOEY. 


Already  prescribed  under  authority  of  law  for  cxclugive  and  uniform  upc  in  the 
public  schools*  of  OREGOiS,  TEXAS  and  ARKANSAS.  Also  adopted  for  hundreds 
of  important  cities  and  towns— among  xvhich  we  name  Brooklyn,  N.Y. ;  Jersey 
City,  N.  J. ;  Scranton,  Pa. ;  Wilmington,  Del. ;  Portland,  Me. ;  Springfield,  Mass. ; 
Louisville,  Ky. ;  Vicksburg,  Miss. ;  Madison,  Wis. ;  Rochester,  Minn. ;  Macon,  Mo. ; 
Springfield,  111. ;  New  Orleans,  La.,  etc. 

From  Hon.  J.  M.  McKenzie,  Bupt.  Piib.  Inst,  NebrasTca. 
I  have  examined  your  ''Brief  History  of  the  United  States,"  and  like  it  real  well; 
and  were  I  teaching  a  graded  school,  I  think  I  should  use  it  as  a  text-book. 

Frofn  Hon.  H.  B.  Wilson,  Supt.  Pub.  Inst.,  Minnesota. 
I  have  read  with  much  interest  the  "  One-Term  History  of  the  United  States."    I 
am  much  pleased  with  it.    In  my  judgment,  it  contains  all  of  the  United  States  his- 
tory that  the  majority  of  pupils  in  our  common  schools  can  spare  time  to  study. 

From  Pres.  Edward  Brooks,  Millersville  State  Normal  School,  Pa. 
It  is  a  worl'  that  will  be  a  favorite  with  teachers  and  pupils.    Its  scope  and  stylo 
especially  adapt  it  for  use  in  our  public  schools.    I  cordially  commend  it  to  teachers 
desiring  to  introduce  an  interesting  and  practical  text-book  upon  this  subject. 

From  Pres.  Barker,  Buffalo  State  Normal  School,  N.  Y. 
In  the  copy  of  your  "  Brief  History,''  before  me,  the  important  items  to  be  learned 
in  history  seem  most  ingeniously  brought  out  and  kept  in  the  foreground.    These 
items  are  time,  persons,  places,  and  events.    It  has  the  appearance  of  an  exceedingly 
fresh  and  systematic  work.    I  think  I  shall  put  it  into  my  classes. 

From  Prof.  Wm.  F.  Allen,  State  Univ.  of  Wisconsin. 
I  think  the  author  of  the  nev.^  "  Brief  History  of  the  United  States  "  has  been  very 
successful  in  combining  brevity  with  suflacient  fullness  and  interest.  Particularly^ 
he  has  avoided  the  excessive  number  of  names  and  dates  that  most  histories  con- 
tain. Two  features  that  I  like  very  much  are  the  anecdotes  at  the  foot  of  the  page 
and  the  ''' Historical  Recreations''''  in  the  Appendix.  The  latter,  I  think,  is  quite  a 
n^w  feature,  and  the  other  is  very  well  executed. 

From  S.  G.  Wright,  Assist.-Supt.  Pub.  Inst.,  Kansas. 
It  is  with  extreme  pleasure  we  submit  our  recommendation  of  the  "•  Brief  History 
of  the  United  States."  It  meets  the  needs  of  young  and  older  children,  combining 
concision  with  perspicuity,  and  if  "brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit,"  this  "Brief  His- 
tory" contains  not  only  that  well-chosen  ingredient,  but  wisdom  sufficient  to  en- 
lighten those  students  who  are  wearily  longing  for  a  "  new  departure  "  from  certain 
old  and  uninteresting  presentations  of  fossilized  writers.  We  congratulate  a  pro- 
gressive public  upon  a  progressive  book. 

From  Hon.  Newton  Bateman,  Supt.  Pub.  Inst.,  Illinois. 

Barnes'  One-Term  History  of  the  United  States  is  an  exceedingly  attractive  and 
spirited  little  book.  Its  claim  to  several  new  and  valuable  features  seems  well 
founded.  Under  the  form  of  six  well-defined  Epochs,  the  History  of  the  United 
States  is  traced  tersely,  yet  pithily,  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present  day.  A 
good  map  precedes  each  epoch,  whereby  the  history  and  geography  of  the  period 
may  be  studied  together,  as  they  always  should  be.  The  syllabus  of  each  paragraph 
is  made  to  stand  in  such  bold  relief,  by  the  use  of  large,  heavy  type,  as  to  be  of 
much  mnemonic  value  to  the  student.  The  book  is  written  in  a  sprightly  and 
piquant  style,  the  interest  never  flagging  from  beginning  to  end— a  rare  and  difficult 
achievement  in  works  of  this  kind. 

From  the  ''Chicago  Schoolmaster'*''  {EditoriaT). 

A  thorough  examination  of  Barnes'  Brief  History  of  the  United  States  brings  tho 
examiner  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  a  superior  book  in  almost  every  respect.  The 
book  is  neat  in  form,  and  of  good  material.  The  type  is  clear,  large,  and  distinct. 
Th3  facts  and  dates  are  correct.  The  arrangement  of  topics  is  just  the  thing  needed 
in  a  history  text-book.  By  this  arrangement  the  pupil  can  see  at  once  what  he  is 
expected  to  do.  The  topics  are  well  selected,  embracing  the  leading  ideas  or  prin- 
cipal events  of  American  history.  .  .  .  The  book  as  a  whole  is  much  superior 
to  any  I  have  examined.  So  much  d5  I  think  this,  that  I  have  ordered  it  for  ray 
class,  and  shall  use  it  in  my  school.  (Signed)       B.  W.  Baker. 

Baker's  Brief  History  of  Texas, H  25 

23 


The  JV*ational  Series  of  Standard  Sc?ioot-Sooks. 

PENMANSHIP. 


68 


80 


Beers'  System  of  Progressive  Penmanship. 

Per  dozen .     .$1 

This  "  round  hand  "  system  of  Penmanship  in  twelve  numbers,  com- 
mends ifcself  by  its  simplicity  and  thoroughness.  The  first  four  numbers 
are  primary  books.  Nos.  5  to  7,  advanced  books  for  boys.  Nos.  8  to  10, 
advanced  books  for  girls.  Nos.  11  and  12,  ornamental  penmanship. 
These  books  are  printed  from  steel  plates  (engraved  by  McLees),  and  are 
unexcelled  in  mechanical  execution.    Large  quantities  are  annually  sold. 

Beers'  Slated  Copy  Slips,  per  set *50 

All  beginners  should  practice,  for  a  few  weeks,  slate  exercises,  familiar- 
izing them  with  the  torni  of  the  letters,  the  motions  of  the  hand  and  arm, 
&c.,  &c.  These  copy  slips,  82  in  number,  supply  all  the  copies  found  in  a 
complete  seiies  of  writing-books,  at  a  trifling  cost. 

Payson,Dunton&Scribner'sCopy-B'ks.P.doz*l 

The  National  System  of  Penmanship,  in  three  distinct  series— (1)  Com- 
mon School  Series,  couiprisitig  the  first  six  numbers  ;  (2)  Business  Series, 
Nos.  8,  11,  and  12  ;  (B)  Ladies'  Series,  Nos.  7, 9,  and  10. 

Fulton  &  Eastman's  Chirographic  Charts,*3  75 

To  embellish  the  school  room  walls,  and  furnish  class  exercise  in  the 
elements  of  Penmanship. 

Payson's  Copy-Book  Cover,  per  hundred     .*4  oo 

Protects  every  page  except  the  one  in  use,  and  furnishes  "lines'*  with  propet 
slope  for  the  penman,  under.     Patented. 

.     *15 

Pronounced  by  competent  judges  the  perfection  of  American-made  pens,  &n4 
superior  to  any  foreign  article. 

Index  Pen,  per  gross     ...  75 

BUSINESS  SERIES. 

Albata  Pen,  per  gross,      .    .  40 

Bank  Pen,        do  ^  .     .  10 

Empire  Pen,    do  .     .  70 

Commercial  >'cn,  per  gross  .  60 

Express  Pen,  do         .  75 

Falcon  Pen,  do         .  70 

Elastic  Pen,  do         .  15 


National  Steel  Pens,  Card  with  all  kinds 


SCHOOL  SERIES. 
School  Pen,  per  gross,     .    .$    60 
Academic  Pen,     do  .    .       63 

Fine  Pointed  Pen,  per  gross       70 

POPULAR  SERIEo. 

Capitol  Pen,  per  gross,     .    .  1  00 

do      do    pr,  box  of  2  doz.     25 

Bullion  Pen  (imit.  gold)  pr.  gr.  75 

Ladies'  Pen  do      G3 


Stimpson's  Scientific  Steel  Pen,  per  gross    .*2  oo 

One  forward  and  two  backward  arches,  ensuring  gveat  strength,  well- 
balanced  elasticity,  evenness  of  point,  and  smoothness  of  execution.  One 
gross  in  twelve  containsa  Scientific  Gold  Pen. 

Stimpson's  Ink-Retaining  Holder,  per  doz.  .*2  oo 

A  simple  apparatus,  whic^  does  not  get  out  of  order,  withholds  at  a 
single  dip  as  much  ink  as  the  pen  would  otherwise  realize  from  a  dozen 
trips  to  the  inkstand,  which  it  supplies  with  moderate  and  easy  flow. 

Stimpson's  Gold  Pen,  §3  oo;  with  Ink  Retainer*^  50 
Slimpson's  Penman's  Card, *    50 

One  dozen  Steel  Pens  (assorted  points)  and  Patent  Ink-retaining  P«n 
holder. 

24 


The  jyatlonat  Series  of  Standard  School- j^ooA^s. 

BOOK-KEEPING. 


Folsom's  Logical  Book-keeping,    .    .    .   .    .  $200 
Folsom's  Blanks  to  Book-keeping,    .    .    .   .  *^4  50 

This  treatise  embraces  the  interesting  and  important  discoveries 
of  Prof.  Folsom  (of  the  Albany  "  Bryant  &  Stratton  College"),  the  par- 
tial enunciation  of  which  in  lectures  and  otherwise  has  attracted  so 
much  attention  in  circles  interested  in  commercial  education. 

After  studying  business  phenomena  for  many  years,  he  has  arrived 
at  the  positive  laws  and  principles  that  underlie  the  whole  subject  of 
Accounts  ;  finds  that  the  science  is  based  in  Value  as  a  generic  term  ; 
that  value  divides  into  two  classes  with  varied  species ;  that  all  the 
exchanges  of  values  are  reducible  to  nine  equations  ;  and  that  all  the 
results  of  all  these  exchanges  are  limited  to  thirteen  in  number. 

As  accounts  have  been  universally  taught  hitherto,  without  setting 
out  from  a  radical  analysis  or  definition  of  values,  the  science  has 
been  kept  in  great  obscurity,  and  been  made  as  difficult  to  impart  as 
to  acquire.  On  the  new  theory,  however,  these  obstacles  are  chiefly 
removed.  In  reading  over  the  first  part  of  it,  in  which  the  governing 
laws  and  principles  are  discussed,  a  person  with  ordinary  intelligence 
will  obtain  a  fair  conception  of  the  double  entry  process  of  accounts. 
But  when  he  comes  to  study  thoroughly  these  laws  and  principles  as 
there  enunciated,  and  works  out  the  examples  and  memoranda  which 
elucidate  the  thirteen  results  of  business,  the  student  will  neither  fail 
in  readily  acquiring  the  science  as  it  is,  nor  in  becoming  able  intelli- 
gently to  apply  it  in  the  interpretation  of  business. 

Smith  &  Martin's  Book-keeping, i  35 

Smith  &  Martin's  Blanks, *60 

This  work  is  by  a  practical  teacher  and  a  practical  book-keeper. 
It  is  of  a  thoroughly  popular  class,  and  will  be  welcomed  by  every 
one  who  loves  to  see  theory  and  practice  combined  in  an  easy,  con- 
cise, and  methodical  form. 

The  Single  Entry  portion  is  well  adapted  to  supply  a  want  felt  in 
nearly  all  other  treatises,  which  seem  to  be  prepared  mainly  for  the 
use  of  wholesale  merchants,  leaving  retailers,  mechanics,  farmers, 
etc.,  who  transact  the  greater  portion  of  the  business  of  the  country, 
without  a  guide.  The  work  is  also  commended,  on  this  account,  for 
general  use  in  Young  Ladies'  Seminaries,  where  a  thorough  ground- 
ing in  the  simpler  form  of  accounts  will  be  invaluable  to  the  futur© 
housekeepers  of  the  nation. 

The  treatise  on  Double  Entry  Book-keeping  combines  all  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  most  recent  methods,  with  the  utmost  simplicity  of 
application,  thus  affording  the  pupil  all  the  advantages  of  actual  ex- 
perience in  the  counting-house,  and  giving  a  clear  comprehension  of 
the  entire  subject  through  a  judicious  course  of  mercantile  trans- 
actions. 

The  shape  of  the  book  is  such  that  the  transactions  can  be  pre- 
sented as  in  actual  practice ;  and  the  simplified  foi-m  of  Blanks — 
three  in  number— adds  greatly  to  the  ease  experienced  in  acquirini^ 
the  scienco. 

»5 


77ie  JVatio7iat  Se^^ies  of  Standard  School :Boo/cs, 

DKAWING. 


Chapman's  American  Drawing  Book,  .   .    .*$6  oo 

The  standard  American  text-book  and  authority  m  all  branches  of  art.  A  com- 
pilation of  art  principles.  A  manual  for  the  amateur,  and  basis  of  study  for  the  pro- 
fessional artist.    Adapted  for  schools  and  private  instruction. 

Contents.— "Any  one  who  can  Learn  to  Write  can  Learn  to  Draw." — Primary 
Instruction  in  Drawinj^.— Kudiments  of  Drawing  the  Human  Head. — Rudiments  in 
Drawing  the  Human  Figure.— Rudiments  of  Drawing.— The  Elements  of  Geometry.— 
Perspective.— Of  Studying  and  Sketching  from  Nature.— Of  Painting.— Etching  and 
Engraving.— Of  Modeling.— Of  Composition  —Advice  to  the  American  Art-Stiident. 

The  work  is  of  course  magnificently  illustrated  with  all  the  original  designs. 

Chapman's  Elementary  Drawing  Book,  .   .    i  50 

A  Progressive  Course  of  Practical  Exercises,  or  a  text-book  for  the  training  of  the 
eye  and  hand.  It  contains  the  elements  from  the  larger  work,  and  a  copy  f-hould 
be  in  the  hands  of  every  pupil;  while  a  copy  of  the  "American  Drawing  Book," 
named  above,  should  be  at  hand  for  reference  by  the  class. 

The  LitUe  Artist's  Portfolio, *50 

25  Drawing  Cards  (progressive  patterns),  25  Blanks,  and  a  fine  Artist's  Pencil, 
all  in  one  neat  envelope. 

Clark's  Elements  of  Drawing, *i  oo 

A  complete  course  in  this  graceful  art,  from  the  first  rudiments  of  outline  to  the 
finished  sketches  of  landscape  and  scenery. 

Fowle's  Linear  and  Perspective  Drawing,  .     *60 

For  the  cultivation  of  the  eye  and  hand,  with  copious  illustrations  and  direc- 
tions for  the  guidance  of  the  unskilled  teacher. 

Monk's  Drawing  Books— Six  timbers,  per  set,  *2  25 

Each  book  contains  eleven  large  patterns,  with  opposing  blanks.  No.  1.  Elemen- 
tary Studies.  No.  2.  Studies  of  Foliage.  No.  3.  Landscapes.  No.  4.  Animals,  L 
No.  5.  Animals,  II.    No.  G.  Marine  Views,  etc. 

Allen's  Map-Drawing,   .    .    .    25cts.;  Scale,       25 

This  method  introduces  a  nev/  era  in  Map-Drav/ing,  for  the  following  reasons  :— 
1.  It  is  a  system.  This  is  its  greatest  merit.— 2.  It  is  easily  understood  and  taught. 
—3.  The  eye  is  trained  to  exact  measurement  by  the  use  of  a  scale.— 4.  By  no  spe- 
cial eff'ort  of  the  memory,  distance  and  comparative  size  are  fixed  in  the  mind.— 
5.  It  discards  useless  construction  of  lines.— 6.  It  can  be  taught  by  any  teacher,  even 
though  there  may  have  been  no  previous  practice  in  Map-Drawing.— 7.  Any  impil 
old  enough  to  study  Geography  can  learn  by  this  System,  in  a  short  tim.e,  to  draw 
accurate  maps.— 6.  The  System  is  not  the  result  of  theory,  but  comes  directly  from 
the  school-room.  It  has  been  thoroughly  and  successfully  tested  there,  with  all 
grades  of  pupils.— 9.  It  is  economical, >*s  it  requires  no  mapping  plates.  It  gives 
the  pupil  the  ability  of  rapidly  drawing  accurate  maps. 

Ripley's  Map-Drawing, i  ^5 

Based  on  the  Circle.  One  of  the  most  efficient  aids  to  the  acquirement  of  a 
knowledge  of  Geography  is  the  practice  of  map-drawing.  It  is  useful  for  the  same 
reason  that  the  best  exercise  in  orthography  is  the  writing  of  difficult  words. 
Sight  comes  to  the  aid  of  hearing,  and  a  double  impression  is  produced  upon  tho 
memory.  Knowledge  becomes  less  mechanical  and  more  intuitive.  The  student 
who  has  sketched  the  outlines  of  a  country,  and  dotted  the  important  places,  is  little  " 
likely  to  forget  either.  The  impression  produced  may  be  compared  to  that  of  a 
traveller  who  has  been  over  the  ground,  while  more  comprehenBlve  and  accurate  in 
detail, 

26 


The  JVatio7ial  Series  of  Standard  School-Sooks. 

MUSIC. 


■  ■♦•■» 


Jepson's  Music  Readers.    3  vols.  .   .   .  Each,  75  eta. 

These  are  not  ]/Ooks  from  which  children  simply  learn  songs,  par- 
rot-like, but  teach  the  subject  progressively— the  scholar  learning  to 
read  music  by  methods  similar  to  those  employed  in  teaching  him  to 
read  printed  language.  Any  teacher,  however  ignorant  of  music,  pro- 
vided he  can,  upon  trial,  simplj^  sound  the  scale,  may  teach  it  without 
assistance,  and  will  end  by  bemg  a  good  singer  himself.  The  ''  Ele- 
mentary Music  Reader,"  or  first  volume,  heretofore  issued  by  another 
fmblisher,  has  attained  results  in  the  State  of  Connecticut,  where  only 
t  has  been  known,  entirely  unprecedented  in  the  history  of  teaching 
music.  The  two  companion  volumes  carry  the  same  method  into  the 
higher  grades, 

Nash  &  Bristow's  Canlara-   No.i,  $i.i5;  lfo.2,$i.40 

The  first  volume  is  a  complete  musical  text-book  for  schools  of 
every  grade.  No.  2  is  a  choice  selection  of  Solos  and  Part  Songs, 
The  authors  are  Directors  of  Music  in  the  public  schools  of  New  York 
City,  in  which  these  books  are  the  standard  of  instruction, 

Curtis'  Little  Singer, <^o  60 

Curtis'  School  Vocalist, i  oo 

Kingsley's  School-Room  Choir, 60 

Kingsley's  Young  Ladies'  Harp, i  oo 

Hager's  Echo, '^5 

Perkins'  Sabbath  Carols  (for  sunday^schoois),     .    .  35 

Phillips'  Singing  Annual        do.     do.         .    .  25 


DEVOTION. 


Brooks'  School  Manual  of  Devotion,    •   •    .  lo  75 

This  volume  contains  daily  devotional  exercises,  consisting  of  a 
hymn,  selections  of  Scripture  for  alternate  reading  by  teacher  and 
pupils,  and  a  prayer.  Its  value  for  opening  and  closing  school  is 
apparent. 

Brooks' School  Harmonist, *'^5 

Contains  appropriate 
tlon  "  described  above. 


Contains  appropriate  twnes  for  each  hymn  'm  the  ^*  Manual  of  Deyo 


27 


T?ie  JVatio7iat  Series  of  Slanda7*d  School- SooJts, 

NATURAL  SCIENCE. 


FAMILIAR   SCIENCE. 
Norton  &  Porter's  First  Book  of  Science,   •  ti  75 

By  eminent  Professors  of  Yale  College.  Contains  the  principles  of  Natural 
Philosophy,  Astronomy,  Chemistry,  Physiology,  and  Geology.  Arranged  on  th« 
Catechetical  plan  lor  primary  classes  and  beginners. 

Chambers'  Treasury  of  Knowledge, ....    i  25 

Progressive  lessons  u^ion— first,  common  things  which  lie  most  immediately 
around  us,  and  first  attract  the  attention  of  the  young  mind ;  second,  common  objects 
from  the  Mineral,  Animal,  and  Vegetable  kingdoms,  manufactured  articles,  and 
miscellaneous  substances ;  thi7'd,  a  systematic  view  of  Nature  under  the  various 
sciences.    May  be  used  as  a  Reader  or  Text-book. 

NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY. 
Norton's  First  Book  in  Natural  Philosophy,  i  oo 

By  Prof.  Norton,  of  Yale  College.  Designed  for  beginners.  Profusely  illustrated 
and  arranged  on  the  Catechetical  plan. 

Peck's  Ganot's  Course  of  Nat.  Philosophy,  .    i  '^5 

The  standard  text-book  of  France,  Americanized  and  popularized  by  Prof.  Peck, 
of  Columbia  College,  The  most  magnificent  system  of  illustration  ever  adopted  in 
an  American  school-book  is  here  found.    For  intermediate  classes. 

Peck's  Elements  of  Mechanics, ^  oo 

A  suitable  introduction  to  Bartlett's  higher  treatises  on  Mechanical  Philosophy, 
and  adequate  in  itself  for  a  complete  academical  course. 

Bartlett's  SYraETiG,  and  analytic,  Mechanics,  •  each   5  oo 
Bartlelt's  Acoustics  and  Optics, 3  50 

A  system  of  Collegiate  Philosophy,  by  Prof.  Baetlett,  of  West  Point  Military 
Academy. 

Steele's  14  Weeks  Course  in  Philos.  (see  p.  34)    i  50 
Steele's  Philosophical  Apparatus, ....  .*125  oo 

Adequate  to  performing  the  experiments  in  the  ordinary  text-books.  The  articles 
will  be  sold  separately,  if  desired.    See  special  circular  for  details. 

G-  E  O  L  O  G  Y. 
Page's  Elements  of  Geology, i  25 

A  volume  of  Chambers'  Educational  Course.  Practical,  simple,  and  eminently 
calculated  to  make  the  study  interesting. 

Emmons'  Manual  of  Geology, i  25 

The  first  Geologist  of  the  country  has  here  produced  a  work  worthy  of  his  repu- 
tation. 

Steele's  14  Weeks  Course  (see  p.  34) 1  50 

Steele's  Geological  Cabinet, *40  00 

Containing  125  carefully  selected  specimens.  In  four  parti.  Sold  separately,  ii 
desired.    See  circular  for  details. 

2S 


The  JVational  Series  of  Stanctard  School^!BoQks. 


Peck's  Ganot's  Popular  Physics. 

TESTIMOJSriAIiS. 

From  Prof.  Alonzo  Collin,  Cornell  College^  Iowa. 
I  am  pleased  with  it.    I  have  deeided  to  introduce  it  as  a  text-book. 

From  H.  F.  Johnson,  President  Madison  College^  Sharon^  Miss. 
I  am  pleased  with  Peck's  Ganot,  and  think  it  a  magnificent  book. 

From  Prop.  Edward  Brooks,  Pennsylvania  State  JVbrmal  School, 
So  eminent  are  its  merits,  that  it  will  be  introduced  as  the  text-book  upon  el# 
mentary  physics  in  this  institution. 

From  H.  H.  Lockwood,  Professor  Natural  Philosophy  U.  8.  Nwml  Academy. 
I  am  so  pleased  with  it  that  I  will  probably  add  it  to  a  course  of  lectures  given  ta 
the  midshipmen  of  this  school  on  physics. 

From-G-Eo.  S.  Mackie,  P/vfessor  Natural Elstory  University  o/ Nashville,  Tenn. 

I  have  decided  on  the  introduction  of  Peck's  Ganot's  Philosophy,  as  I  am  satis- 
fied that  it  is  the  best  book  for  the  purposes  of  my  pupils  that  I  have  seen,  coib. 
bining  simplicity  of  explanation  with  elegance  of  illustration. 

From  W.  S.  McRae,  Superintendent  Vevay  Public  ScTiools,  Indiana. 
Having  carefully  examined  a  number  of  text-books  on  natural  philosophy,  I  do 
not  hesitate  to  express  my  decided  opinion  in  favor  of  Peck's  Ganot.    The  matter, 
style,  and  illustration  eminently  adapt  the  work  to  the  popular  wants. 

From  Uky.  Samuel  McKinney,  D.D.,  PresH  Austin  College,  Huntsville,  Texas. 

It  gives  me  pleasure  to  commend  it  to  teachers.  I  have  taught  some  classes  with 
It  as  our  text,  and  must  say,  for  simplicity  of  style  and  clearness  of  illustration,  I 
have  found  nothing  as  yet  published  of  equal  value  to  the  teacher  and  pupil. 

From  C.  V.  Spear,  Principal  Maplewood  Institute,  Pittsfield.  Mass. 
I  am  much  pleased  with  its  ample  illustrations  by  plates,  and  its  clearness  and 
pimplicity  of  statement.    It  covers  the  ground  usually  gone  over  by  our  higher 
classes,  and  contains  many  fresh  illustrations  from  life  or  daily  occurrences,  and 
new  applications  of  scientific  principles  to  such. 

From  J;  A.  Banfield,  Superintendent  Marsliall  Public  Schools,  Michigan. 
I  have  used  Peck's  Ganot  since  1863,  and  with  increasing  pleasure  and  satisfac- 
tion each  term.    I  consider  it  superior  to  any  other  work  on  physics  in  its  adapta- 
tion  to   our   high   schools  and  academies.     Its  illustrations  are  superb— better 
than  three  times  their  number  of  pages  of  fine  print. 

From  A.  Schutler,  Prof,  of  Mathematics  in  Baldwin  University^  JSerea,  Ohio. 

After  a  careful  examination  of  Peck's  Ganot's  Natural  Philosophy,  and  an  actual 
test  of  its  merits  as  a  text-book,  I  can  heartily  recommend  it  as  admirably  adapted 
to  meet  the  wants  of  the  grade  of  students  for  which  it  is  intended.  Its  diagrams 
and  illustrations  are  unrivaled.    We  use  it  in  the  Baldwin  University. 

From  D.  C.  Van  Norman,  Principal  Van  Norman  Institute,  New  York, 
The  Natural  Philosophy  of  M.  Ganot.  edited  by  Prof.  Peck,  is,  in  my  opinion, 
the  best  work  of  its  kind,  for  the  use  intended,  ever  published  in  this  country. 
Whether  regarded  in  relation  to  the  natural  order  of  the  topics,  the  precision  and 
clearness  of  its  definitions,  or  the  fullness  and  beauty  of  its  illustratfons»  it  is  cer- 
tainly,  I  think,  an  advance; 


g^^  For  many  similar  testimonials,  see  current  numbers  of  tho  MHBtmted  Ed 
acatlonal  Bul^etm. 

2d 


The  JVationat  Series  of  Standard  School-^ooks, 

NATURAL    SCIENCE-Continued. 

CHEMISTRY. 

Porter's  First  Book  of  Chemistry,  •  •  •  .$100 
Porter's  Principles  of  Chemistry, 2  00 

The  above  are  widely  known  as  the  productions  of  one  of  the  most  eminent  scien- 
tific men  of  America.  The  extreme  simplicity  in  the  method  of  j)re8enting  the 
science,  while  exhaustively  treated,  has  excited  universal  commendation. 

Darby's  Text-Book  of  Chemistry, 1  75 

Purely  a  Chemistry,  divesting  the  subject  of  matters  comparatively  foreign  to  it 
(such  as  heat,  light,  electricity,  etc.),  but  usually  allowed  to  engross  too  much  atten- 
tion in  ordinary  school-books. 

Gregory's  Organic  Chemistry, ^  so 

Gregory's  Inorganic  Chemistry, ^  so 

The  science  exhaustively  treated.    For  colleges  and  medical  students. 

Steele's  Fourteen  Weeks  Course, i  so 

A  successful  effort  to  reduce  the  study  to  the  limits  of  a  nngle  term^  thereby 
making  feasible  its  general  introduction  in  institutions  of  every  character.  The 
author's  felicity  of  style  and  success  in  making  the  science  pre-eminently  interest- 
ing are  peculiarly  noticeable  features.    (See  page  34.) 

Steele's  Chemical  Apparatus, *^o  oo 

.  Adequate  to  the  performance  of  all  the  important  experiments. 

BOTANY. 
Thinker's  First  Lessons  in  Botany,  ....      40 

For  children.  The  technical  terms  are  largely  dispensed  with  in  favor  of  an 
easy  and  familiar  style  adapted  to  the  smallest  learner. 

Wood's  Object-Lessons  in  Botany,  ....  i  so 
Wood's  American  Botanist  and  Florist,  .  .  2  50 
Wood's  New  Class-Book  of  Botany, ....    3  50 

The  standard  text-books  of  the  United  States  in  this  department.  In  style  they 
are  simple,  popular,  and  lively ;  in  arrangement,  easy  and  natural ;  in  description, 
graphic  and  strictly  exact.  The  Tables  for  Analysis  are  reduced  to  a  perfect  sys- 
tem.   More  are  annually  sold  than  of  all  others  combined. 

Wood's  Plant  Record, *75 

A  simple  form  of  Blanks  for  recording  observations  in  the  field. 

Wood's  Botanical  Apparatus, *8  00 

A  portable  Trunk,  containing  Drying  Press,  Knife,  Trowel,  Microscope,  and 
Tweezers,  and  a  copy  of  Wood's  Plant  Kecord — composing  a  complete  outfit  for 
the  collector. 

Young's  Familiar  Lessons, 2  00 

Darby's  Southern  Botany, 2  00 

Embraqjn^  general  Structural  and  Physiological  Botany,  with  vegetable  products, 
and  descriptions  of  Southern  plants,  and  a  complete  Flora  of  the  Southern  States. 

30 


The  JVa^i07?al  Series  of  Sta7idard  School'^ooks. 

WOOD'S    BOTANIES. 


TESTI3SJ:01Sri.A.IjS- 

Frcym  Prbs.  K,  B.  Burleson,  Waco  University^  Texas. 
Woo(f  8  Botanies— books  that  meet  every  want  in  their  lint. 

Frmn  Pbin.  J.  G.  Kalston.  Nornstown  Seminary,  Pa. 
We  find  the  "Class-Book  "  entirely  satisfactory. 

From  Pres.  D.  F.  Bittle,  MoanoJce  College,  Va. 
Your  text-books  on  Botany  are  the  best  for  students. 

From  Prop.  W.  C.  Pierce,  Baldwin  University,  Ohio. 
I  ihxihk  his  Flora  the  best  we  have.    His  method  of  analysis  is  excellent. 

From  Prof.  Blakeslee,  State  Normal  School,  Potsdam,  iV.  Y. 
It  is  admirably  concise,  yet  it  does  not  seem  to  be  deficient  or  obscure.    In  paper, 
print,  and  binding,  the  book  leaves  little  to  be  desired. 

From  Pres.  J.  M.  Gregory,  State  Agricultural  College,  HI. 

'     '  '     ■  1  coi  _ 

'^  tomy 


I  find  myself  greatly  pleased  with  the  perspicuity,  compactness,  and  complete- 
of  the  book  (Wood's  Botanist  and  Florist).    I  shall  recommend  it  freely  t 


friends. 

From  Prof.  A.  Winchell,  University  of  Michigan. 

I  am  free  to  say  that  I  had  been  deeply  impressed,  1  may  say  almost  astonished, 

at  the  evidences  which  the  work  bears  of  skillful  and  experienced  authorship  in 

this  field,  and  nice  and  constant  adaptation  to  the  wants  and  conveniences  of 

students  of  Botany.    I  pronounce  it  emphatically  an  admirable  text-book. 

From  Prof.  Richard  Owen,  University  of  Indiana. 
I  am  well  pleased  with  the  evidence  of  philosophical  method  exhibited  in  the 
general  arrangement,  as  well  as  with  the  clearness  of  the  explanations,  the  ready 
intelligibility  of  the  analytical  tables,  and  the  illustrative  aid  furnished  by  the 
numerous  and  excellent  wood-cuts.  I  design  using  the  work  as  a  text-book  with 
my  next  class. 

From  Prin.  B.  R.  Anderson,  Columbus  Union  School,  Wisconsin. 
I  have  examined  several  works  with  a  view  to  recommending  some  good  text- 
book on  Botany,  but  I  lay  them  all  aside  for  "  Wood's  Botanist  and  Florist."  The 
arrangement  of  the  book  is  in  my  opinion  excellent,  its  style  fascinating  and  attrac- 
tive, its  treatment  of  the  various  departments  of  the  science  is  thorough,  and  last, 
but  far  from  unimportant,  I  like  the  topical  form  of  the  questions  to  each  chapter. 
It  seems  to  embrace  the  entire  science.  In  fact,  I  consider  it  a  complete,  attractive, 
and  exhaustive  work. 

From  M.  A.  Marshall,  ITew  Haven  High  School,  Conn. 
It  has  all  the  excellencies  of  the  well-known  Class-Book  of  Botany  by  the  same 
author  in  a  smaller  book.  B}^  a  judicious  system  of  condensation,  the  size  of  the 
Flora  is  reduced  one-half,  Vhile  no  species  are  omitted,  and  many  new  ones  are 
added.  The  descriptions  of  species  are  very  brief,  yet  sufficient  to  identify  the 
plant,  and,  when  taken  in  connection  with  the  generic  description,  form  a  complete 
description  of  the  plant.  The  book  as  a  whole  will  suit  the  wants  of  classes  better 
than  anything  I  have  yet  seen.  The  adoption  of  the  Botanist  and  Florist  would 
not  require  the  exclusion  of  the  Class-Book  of  Botany,  as  they  are  so  arranged  that 
both  might  be  used  by  the  same  class. 

From  Prof.  G.  H.  Vehki^s,  University  of  Vermont  and  State  Agricultural  College. 
1  can  truly  say  that  the  more  I  examine  Wood's  Class-Book,  the  better  pleased  I 
am  with  it.  In  its  illustrations,  especially  of  particulars  not  easily  observed  by  the 
student,  and  the  clearness  and  compactness  of  its  statements,  as  well  as  in  the  ter- 
ritory its  flora  embraces,  it  appears  to  me  to  surpass  any  other  work  I  know  of. 
The  whole  science,  so  far  as  it  can  be  taught  in  a  college  course,  is  well  presented, 
and  rendered  unusually  easy  of  comprehension.  The  mode  of  analysis  is  excellent, 
avoiding  as  it  does  to  a  great  extent  those  microscopic  characters  which  puzzle  the 
beginner,  and  using  those  that  are  obvious  as  far  as  possible.  I  regard  the  work  as 
a  most  admirable  one,  and  shall  adopt  it  as  a  text-book  another  year. 

31 


The  JSTational  Series  of  Stmida7'd  ScPiool-73ooks, 

NATURAL    SCIENCE-Continued. 

PHYSIOLOaY. 

Jarvis'  Elements  of  Physiology, $75 

Jarvis'  Physiology  and  Laws  of  Health,    •  l  gs 

The  only  books  extant  which  approach  this  subject  with  a  proper  ricTT 
of  the  true  object  of  teaching  Physiology  in  schools,  viz.,  that  scholars 
may  know  how  to  take  care  of  their  own  health.  In  bold  Gontrast  with 
the  abstract  Aiuttomies,  which  children  learn  as  they  would  Greek  or 
Latin  (and  forget  as  soon),  to  discipline  the  mind,  are  these  text-books, 
using  the  scievce  as  a  secondary  consideration,  and  only  so  far  as  is 
necessary  for  the  comprehension  of  the  laws  of  health. 

Hamilton's  Vegetable  &  Animal  Physiology,  l  25 

The  two  branches  of  the  science  combined  in  one  volume  lead  tho  stu- 
dent to  a  proper  comprehension  of  the  Analogies  of  Nature. 

Steele's  Fourteen  Weeks  Course  (see  p.  34),  .  i  50 

ASTRONOMY. 
Steele's  Fourteen  Weeks'  Course, .    .    .    .    .  1  50 

Reduced  to  a  single  term,  and  better  adapted  to  school  use  than  any 
work  heretofore  published.  Not  written  for  the  Information  of  scientific 
men,  but  for  the  inspiration  of  youth,  the  pages  are  not  burdened  with  a 
multitude  of  figures  which  no  memory  could  possibly  retain.  The  whole 
subject  ig  presented  in  a  clear  and  concise  form.  (See  p.  34.) 

Willard's  School  Astronomy, i  oo 

By  means  of  clear  and  attractive  illustrations,  addressing  the  eye  in 
many  cases  by  analogies,  careful  definitions  of  all  necessary  technical 
terras,  a  careful  avoidance  of  verbiage  and  unimportant  matter,  particular 
attention  to  analysis,  and  a  general  adoption  of  the  simplest  methods, 
Mrs.  Willard  has  made  the  best  and  most  attractive  elementary  Astron- 
omy extant 

Mclntyre's  Astronomy  and  the  Globes,    .    •  i  50 

A  complete  treatise  for  intermediate  classes.     Highly  approved. 

Bartlett's  Spherical  Astronomy,    .    .    .    .    .  5  oo 

The  West  Point  course,  for  advanced  classes,  with  applications  to  the 
current  wants  of  Navigation,  Geography,  and  Chronology. 

NATURAL  HISTORY. 
Carll's  Child's  Book  of  Natural  History,  .    .  o  50 

Illustrating  the  Animal,  "Vegetable,  and  Mineral  Kingdoms,  with  appli- 
cation to  the  Arts.    For  beginners.    Beautifully  and  copiously  illustrated. 

ZOOLOG-Y. 
Chambers'  Elements  of  Zoology, 1  so 

A  complete  and  comprehensive  system  of  Zoology,  adapted  for  aca-* 
demic  instruction,  presenting  a  systematic  view  of  the  Animal  Kingdom 
as  a  portion  of  external  Nature. 

32 


JV*ational  Series  of  Standard  Schoot-^ooka^ 

Jarvis'  Physiology  and  Laws  of  Health. 

TESTIMONIALS. 
Fr<ym  Samuel  B.  McLane,  Superinte7ident  Public  Schools,  Keokuk^  Towa. 
I  am  glad  to  see  a  really  good  text-book  on  this  much  neglected  branth.     This  is 
ilear,  concise,  accurate,  and  eminently  adapted  to  the  class-room. 

From  William  F.  Wters,  Principal  of  Academy,  West  Chester,  Peyinsylvaiiia. 

A  thorough  examination  has  satisfied  me  of  its  superior  claims  as  a  text-book  to  tbe 
attention  of  teacher  and  taught.    I  shall  introduce  it  at  once. 

From  H.  R.  Sanford,  Phrineipal  of  East  Oenesee  Conference  Seminary,  N.  Y. 

*' Janris*  Physiology"  is  received,  and  fully  met  our  expectations.  We  immediately 
adopted  it. 

From.  Isaac  T.  Goodnow,  State  Superintendent  of  Kansas— published  in  connection 
tcith  the  "  School  Law." 

**  Jarvis'  Physiology,"  a  common-sense,  practical  work,  with  just  enough  of  anat- 
omy to  understand  the  physiological  portions.  The  last  six  pages,  on  Man's  Kespon 
sibUity  for.  his  own  health,  are  worth  the  price  of  the  book. 

From  D.  W.  Stevens,  Superintendent  Public  Schools,  Fall  River,  Mass. 

I  have  examined  Jarvis'  "  Physiology  and  Laws  of  Health,"  which  you  had  the 
kindness  to  send  to  me  a  short  time  ago.  In  my  judgment  it  is  far  the  best  work  of 
the  kiud  within  my  knowledge.  It  has  been  adopted  as  a  text-book  in  our  public 
schools. 

From  Henry  G.  Denny,  Chairman  Book  Committee,  Boston,  Mass. 

The  very  excellent  "  Physiology "  of  B^.  Jarvis  I  had  introduced  into  our  High 
School,  where  the  study  had  been  temporarily  dropped,  believing  it  to  be  by  far  the 
best  work  of  the  kind  that  had  come  under  my  observation;  indeed,  the  reintroduc- 
tion  of  the  study  was  delayed  for  some  months,  because  Dr.  Jarvis'  book  could  not  be 
had,  and  we  were  unwilling  to  take  any  other. 

From  Prof.  A.  P.  Peabody,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Harvard  University. 
*  •  I  have  been  in  the  habit  of  examining  school-books  with  great  care,  and  I 
hesitate  not  to  say  that,  of  all  the  text-books  on  Physiology  which  have  been  given  to 
the  public,  Dr.  Jarvis'  deserves  the  first  place  on  the  score  of  accuracy,  thoroughness, 
method,  simplicity  of  statement,  and  constant  reference  to  topics  of  practical  interest 
and  utility. 

From  James  N.  Townsend,  Superintendent  Public  Schools,  Hudson,  N.  Y. 
Every  human  being  is  appointed  to  take  charge  of  his  own  body ;  and  of  all  books 
written' upon  this  subject,  I  know  of  none  which  will  so  well  prepare  one  to  do  this  as 
*' Jarvis' Physiology" — that  is,  in  so  small  a  compass  of  matter.  It  considers  the 
pure,  simple  laios  of  health  paramount  to  science ;  and  though  the  work  is  thoroughly 
scientific,  it  is  divested  of  all  cumbrous  technicalities,  and  presents  the  subject  of  phy- 
sical life  in  a  manner  and  style  really  charming.  It  is  unquestionably  the  best  text- 
book on  physiology  I  have  ever  seen.  It  is  giving  great  satisfaction  in  the  schools  of 
this  city,  where  it  has  been  adopted  as  the  standard. 

From  L.  J.  Sanford,  M.D.,  Prof.  Anatomy  and  Physiology  in  Yale  College 
Books  on  human  physiology,  designed  for  the  use  of  schools,  are  more  generally  a 
failure  perhaps  than  are  school-books  on  most  other  subjects. 

The  great  want  in  this  department  is  met,  we  think,  in  the  well-written  treatise  of 
Dr.  Jarvis,  entitled  "  Physiology  and  Laws  of  Health."  *  *  The  work  is  not  too 
detailed  nor  too  expansive  in  any  department,  and  is  clear  and  concise  in  all.  It  is 
not  burdened  with  an  excess  of  anatomical  description,  nor  rendered  discursive  by 
many  zoological  references.  Anatomical  statements  are  made  to  the  extent  of  quali- 
fying the  student  to  attend,  understandingly,  to  an  exposition  of  those  functional  pro 
©esses  which,  collectively,  make  up  health ;  thus  the  laws  of  health  are  enunciated, 
and  many  guggestions  are  given  which,  if  heeded,  will  tend  to  its  preservation. 


ty"  For  further  testimony  of  similar  character,  see  current  numbers  of  tbi^  Illus 
tMted  F.ducational  Bulletin. 

33 


The  A^atiojial  Series  of  Sta77da7xl  Schoot-^ooks, 

NATURAL    SCIENCE. 

"FOUETEEN  WEEKS"  IN  EACH  BEANOH. 

By  J.   DORMAN   STEELE,  A.M. 

Steele's  14  Weeks  Course  in  Chemislry  IV".  H  so 
Steele's  14  Weeks  Course  in  Astronomy  .  i  ^ 
Steele's  14  Weeks  Course  in  Philosophy  .  i  so 
Steele's  14  Weeks  Course  in  Geology.  .  i  so 
Steele's  14  Weeks  Course  in  Physiology    •    i  ^0 

Our  Text-Books  in  these  studies  are,  as  a  general  thing,  dull  and  uninteresting. 
They  contain  from  400  to  600  pages  of  dry  facts  and  unconnected  details.  They 
abound  in  that  which  the  student  cannot  learn,  much  less  remember.  The  pupil 
commences  the  study,  is  confused  by  the  fine  print  and  coarse  print,  and  neither 
knowing  exactly  what  to  learn  nor  what  to  hasten  over,  is  crowded  through  the 
single  term  generally  assigned  to  each  branch,  and  frequently  comes  to  the  close 
without  a  definite  and  exact  idea  of  a  single  scientific  principle. 

Steele's  Fourteen  Weeks  Courses  contain  only  that  which  every  well-informed 
person  should  know,  while  all  that  which  concerns  only  the  professional  scientist 
is  omitted.  The  language  is  clear,  simple,  and  interesting,  and  the  illustrations 
bring  the  subject  within  the  range  of  home  life  and  daily  experience.  They  give 
Buch  of  the  general  principles  and  the  prominent  facts  as  a  pupil  can  make  famil- 
iar as  household  words  within  a  single  term.  The  type  is  large  and  open ;  there 
is  no  fine  print  to  annoy ;  the  cuts  are  copies  of  genuine  experiments  or  natural 
phenomena,  and  are  of  fine  execution. 

In  fine,  by  a  system  of  condensation  peculiarly  his  own,  the  author  reduces  each 
branch  to  the  limits  of  a  single  term  of  study,  while  sacrificing  nothing  that  is  es- 
sential, and  nothing  that  is  usually  retained  from  the  study  of  the  larger  manuals 
in  common  use.  Thus  the  student  has  rare  opportunity  to  economize  his  time,  or 
rather  to  employ  that  which  he  has  to  the  best  advantage. 

A  notable  feature  is  the  author's  charming  "  style,"  fortified  by  an  enthusiasm 
over  his  subject  in  which  the  student  will  not  fail  to  partake.  Believing  that 
Natural  Science  is  full  of  fascination,  he  has  moulded  it  into  a  form  that  attracts 
The  attention  and  kindles  the  enthusiasm  of  the  pupil. 

The  recent  editions  contain  the  author's  ''Practical  Questions"  on  a  plan  never 
before  attempted  in  scientific  text-books.  These  are  questions  as  to  the  nature 
and  cause  of  common  phenomena,  and  are  not  directly  answered  in  the  text,  the 
design  being  to  test  and  promote  an  intelligent  use  of  the  student's  knowledge  of 
the  foregoing  principles. 

Steele's  General  Key  to  his  Works-   .    •    .  *i  so 

This  work  is  mainly  composed  of  Answers  to  the  Practical  Questions  and  Solu- 
tions of  the  Problems  in  the  author's  celebrated  "Fourteen  Weeks  Courses  "  in 
the  several  sciences,  with  many  hints  to  teachers,  minor  Tables,  &c.  Should  ba 
on  every  teacher's  desk. 

34 


7'he  J\rationat  Series  of  Standard  Schoot-^Books. 

Steele's  14  Weeks  in  €ach  Science. 

TESTIMONIALS. 

From  L.  A.  Bikle,  President  N,  C.  College. 
I  have  not  been  disappointed.    Shall  take  pleasure  in  introducing  thia  eeriot. 

From  J.  F.  Cox,  Frest.  Southern  Female  College,  Ga. 
1  am  much  pleased  with  these  books,  and  expect  to  introduce  them. 

Frwn  J.  R.  Branham,  Prin,  Brownsville  Female  College,  Tenn, 
They  are  capital  little  books,  and  are  now  in  use  in  our  institution. 

From  W.  H.  Goodale,  Ptofessor  Eeadviile  Seminary,  La. 
"We  are  using  your  14  Weeks  Course,  and  are  much  pleased  with  them. 

From  W.  A.  Boles,  Supt.  Shelbyville  Graded  School,  Ind. 
They  are  as  entertaining  as  a  story  book,  and  much  more  improving  to  the  mind. 

From  S.  A.  Snow,  Principal  of  IRgh  School,  Uxbridge,  Mass. 

Steele's  14  Weeks  Courses  in  the  Sciences  are  a  perfect  success. 

From  John  W.  Doughty,  Neivburg  Free  Academy,  N.  T. 

J  was  prepared  to  find  Prof.  Steele's  Course  both  attractive  and  instructive.  My 
Sdghest  expectations  have  been  fully  realized. 

From  J.  S.  Blackwell,  Prest.  Ghent  College,  Ky. 

Prof.  Steele's  unexampled  success  in  providing  for  the  wants  of  academic  classes, 
has  led  me  to  look  forward  with  high  anticipations  to  his  forthcoming  issue. 

Frcym  J.  F.  Cook,  Prest.  La  Grange  College,  Mo. 

I  am  pleased  with  the  neatness  of  these  books  and  the  delightful  diction.  I  have 
been  teaching  for  years,  and  have  never  seen  a  lovelier  little  volume  than  the  As- 
tronomy. 

From  M.  W.  Smith,  Pi^n.  of  Kigh  School,  Morrison,  111. 

They  seem  to  me  to  be  admirably  adapted  to  the  wants  of  a  public  school,  con- 
taining, as  they  do,  a  sufficiently  comprehensive  arrangement  of  elementary  prin- 
ciples to  excite  a  healthy  thirst  for  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  those  sciences. 

From  J.  D.  Bartley,  Prin.  of  High  School,  Concord,  N.  H. 

They  are  just  such  books  as  I  have  looked  for,  viz.,  those  of  interesting  style, 
not  cumbersome  and  filled  up  with  things  to  be  omitted .  by  the  pupil,  and  yet  suf- 
ficiently full  of  focts  for  the  purpose  of  most  scholars  in  these  sciences  in  our  high 
schools ;.  there  is  nothing  but  what  a  pupil  of  average  ability  can  thoroughly 
master. 

From  Alonzo  Norton  Lewis,  Principal  of  Parker  Academy,  Conn. 

I  consider  Steele's  Fourteen  Weeks  Courses  in  Philosophy,  Chemistry,  Szc,  the 
best  school-books  that  have  been  issued  in  this  country. 

As  an  introduction  to  the  various  branches  of  which  they  treat,  and  especially 
for  that  numerous  class  of  pupils  who  have  not  the  time  for  a  more  extended 
course,  I  consider  them  invaluable. 

From  Edward  Brooks,  Prin.  State  Normal  ScTwol,  Millersville,  Pa. 

At  the  meeting  of  Normal  School  Principals,  I  presented  the  following  resolu- 
tion, which  was  unanimously  adopted:  '^ Reeotved,  That  Steele's  14  Weeks 
Courses  in  Natural  Philosophy  and  Astronomy,  or  an  amount  equivalent  to  what 
is  contained  in  them,  be  adopted  for  use  in  the  State  Normal  Schools  of  Pennsyl- 
vania." The  works  themselves  will  be  adopted  by  at  least  three  of  the  echoola, 
and,  I  presume,  by  them  all. 

35 


JVationat  Series  of  Standard  School-^ooks, 

LITERATURE. 

.^o   ^    o* 

Cleveland's  Compendiums    •    •    •    •    ^^^^^^  ^*2  50 

English  Litetiatuiie.  American  Literature. 

English  Literature  of  the  XIXth  Century. 

In  these  volumes  are  gathered  the  cream  of  the  literature  of  the  English  speak, 
ing  people  for  the  school-room  and  the  general  reader.  Their  reputation  is 
Ditional.    More  than  125,000  copies  have  been  sold. 

Boyd's  English  Classics each,    *i  25 

Milton's  Paradise  Lost.  Thomson's  Seasons. 

Young's  Night  Thoughts.  Pollok's  Course  of  Time. 

Cowper's  Task,  Table  Talk,  &c.    Lord  Bacon's  Essays. 

This  series  of  annotated  editions  of  great  English  writers,  in  prose  and  poetry, 
is  designed  for  critical  reading  and  parsing  in  schools.  Prof.  J.  K.  Boyd  proves 
himself  an  editor  of  high  capacity,  and  the  woiks  themselves  need  no  encomium. 
As  auxiliary  to  the  study  of  Belles  Lettres,  etc.,  these  works  have  no  equal. 

Pope's  Essay  on  Man *2o 

Pope's  Homer's  Iliad *80 

The  metrical  translation  of  the  great  poet  of  antiquity,  and  the  matchless 
•*  Essay  on  the  Nature  and  State  of  Man,"  by  Alexander  Pope,  afford  superior 
f.xercise  in  literature  and  parsing. 

AESTHETIC  S. 


Huntington's  Manual  of  the  Fine  Arts  •    •*!  75 

A  view  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  Art  in  different  countries,  a  brief 
account  of  the  most  eminent  masters  of  Art,  and  an  analysis  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  Art.  It  is  complete  in  itself,  or  may  precede  to  advantage  tbo 
critical  work  of  Lord  Karnes. 

Boyd's  Karnes'  Elements  of  Criticism    •   •*!  75 

The  best  edition  of  this  standard  work ;  without  the  study  of  which* 
none  may  be  considered  proficient  iu  the  science  of  the  Perceptions.  No 
other  study  can  be  pursued  with  so  marked  an  effect  upon  the  taste  and 
refinement  of  the  pupil. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY. 


Champlin's  Lessons  on  Political  Economy    i  25 

An  improvement  on  previous  treatises,  being  shorter,  yet  containing 
every  thing  essential,  with  a  view  of  recent  questions  in  finance,  etc. 


wUch  is  not  elsewhere  found. 

36 


The  JYational  Series  of  Stctndard  Schoot-'Books. 

CLEVELAND'S   COMPENDIUMS. 


TESTinsd:o3sri.A.iLS- 

Frmn  the  New  Englander. 
This  is  the  very  best  book  of  the  kind  we  have  ever  examined. 

From  George  B.  Emerson,  Esq.,  Boston. 
The  Biographical  Sketches  are  just  and  discriminating ;  the  selections  are  admir- 
able, and  fhave  adopted  the  work  as  a  text-book  for  my  first  class. 

From  Prof.  Moses  Coit  Tyler,  of  the  Michigan  University. 
I  have  given  your  book  a  thorough  examination,  and  am  greatly  delighted  with 
it ;  and  shall  have  great  pleasure  in  directing  the  attention  of  my  classes  to  a  work 
which  affords  so  admirable  a  bird's-eye  view  of  recent  "English  Literature." 
From  the  Saturday  Review. 
It  acquaints  the  reader  with  the  characteristic  method,  tone,  and  quality  of  all  the 
chief  notabilities  of  the  period,  and  will  give  the  careful  student  a  better  idea  of  the 
recent  history  of  English  Literature  than  nine  educated  Englishmen  in  ten  possess. 
From  the  Methodist  Quarterly  Review^  New  York. 
This  work  is  a  transcript  of  the  best  American  mind;  a  vehicle  of  the  noblest 
American  spirit.    No  parent  who  would  introduce  his  child  to  a  knowledge  of  our 
country's  literature,  and  at  the  same  time  indoctrinate  his  heart  in  the  purest  prin- 
ciples, need  fear  to  put  this  manual  in  the  youthful  hand. 

From  Rev.  C,  Peirce,  Principal.,  West  Newton,  Mass. 
I  do  not  believe  the  work  is  to  be  found  from  which,  within  the  same  limits,  so 
much  interesting  and  valuable  information  in  regard  to  English  writers  and  English 
literature  of  every  age,  can  be  obtained;  and  it  deserves  to  find  a  place  in  all  our 
high  schools  and  academies,  as  well  as  in  every  private  library. 
From  the  Independent. 
The  work  of  selection  and  compilation— requiring  a  perfect  familiarity  with  the 
whole  range  of  English  literature,  a  judgment  clear  and  impartial,  a  taste  at  once 
delicate  and  severe,  and  a  most  sensitive  regard  to  purity  of  thought  or  feeling— has 
been  better  accomplished  in  this  than  in  any  kindred  volume  with  which  we  are 
acquainted. 

From  the  Christian  Examiner. 
To  form  such  a  Compendium,  good  taste,  fine  scholarship,  familiar  acquaintance 
with  English  literature,  unwearied  industry,  tact  acquired  by  practice,  an  interest 
in  the  culture  of  the  young,  a  regard  for  truth,  purity,  philanthropy,  religion,  as  the 
highest  attainment  and  the  highest  beauty,— all  these  were  needed,  and  they  are 
united  in  Mr.  Cleveland. 

CHAMPLIN'S  POLITICAL  ECONOMY. 


From  J.  L.  Bothwell,  I^n.  Public  School  No.  Ih,  Albany.,  N.  T. 

I  have  examined  Champlin's  Political  Economy  with  much  pleasure,  and  shall  b« 
pleased  to  put  it  into  the  hands  of  my  pupils.  In  quantity  and  quality  I  think  it 
superior  to  anything  that  I  have  examined. 

Frcrni  Pres.  N.  E.  Cobleigh,  East  Tennessee  Wesleyan  University. 

An  examination  of  Champlin's  Political  Economy  has  satisfied  me  that  it  is  the 
book  I  want.  For  brevity  and  compactness,  division  of  the  subject,  and  clear  state- 
ment, and  for  appropriateness  of  treatment,  I  consider  it  a  better  text-book  than 
any  other  in  the  market. 

From  the  Evening  Mail.  New  York. 

A  new  interest  has  been  imparted  to  the  science  of  political  economy  since  we 
have  been  necessitated  to  raise  such  vast  sums  of  money  for  the  support  of  the  gov- 
ernment. The  time,  therefore,  is  favorable  for  the  introduction  of  works  like  the 
above.  This  little  volume  of  two  hundred  pages  is  intended  for  beginners,  for  the 
common  school  and  academv.  It  is  intended  as  a  basis  upon  which  to  rear  a  more 
elaborate  superstructure.  There  is  nothing  in  the  principles  of  politicnl  economy 
above  the  comprehension  of  average  scholars,  when  they  are  learly  set  forth.  Thia 
seems  to  have  been  done  by  President  Champlin  in  an  easy  and  graceful  manner. 

37 


The  JSratlonal  Sefies  of  6'la9idard  School  Soo/ts^ 


ELOCUTION. 


Watson's  Practical  Elocution $o  25 

A  brief,  clear,  and  most  satisfactory  treatise— same  as  in  "Independent 
Fifth  Reader."    The  subject  fully  illustrated  by  diagrams. 

Zachos'  Analytic  Elocution      i  60 

A.11  departments  of  elocution— such  as  the  analysis  of  the  voice  and  the 

sentence,  phonology,  rhythm,  expression,  gesture,  &c are  here  arranged 

for  instruction  in  classes,  illustrated  by  copious  examples. 

Sherwood's  Self  Culture i  00 

Self-culture  in  reading,  epeaking,  and  conversation— a  very  valuable 
treatise  to  those  who  would  perfect  themselves  in  these  accomplishments. 

~~       SPEAKERS. 


Northend's  Little  Orator,  *60-Child's  Speaker*60 

Two  little  works  of  the  same  grade  but  different  selections,  containing 
simple  and  attractive  pieces  for  children  under  twelve  years  of  age. 

Northend's  Young  Declaimer *75 

Northend's  National  Orator n  25 

Two  volumes  of  Proso,  Poetry,  ajid  Dialogue,  adapted  to  inter- 
mediate and  grammar  clast^es  respectively. 

Northend's  Entertaining  Dialogues .    .    .    .*i  25 

Extracts  eminently  adapted  to  cultivate  the  dramatic  faculties,  as  well 
as  entertain  an  audience. 

Swett's  Common  School  Speaker    ...•*!  25 

Selections  trom  recent  literature. 

Raymond's  Patriotic  Speaker *2  00 

A  siipero  coranilation  ot  modern  eloquence  and  poetry,  with  original 
dramatic  exercises.  Nearly  every  eminent  living  orator  is  represented, 
without  distinction  of  place  or  party. 

COMPOSITION,   &c. 


Brookfield's  First  Book  in  Composition   •     50 

Making  the  cultivation  of  this  important  art  feasible  for  the  smallest 
child.    By  a  new  method,  to  induce  and  stimulate  thought. 

Boyd's  Composition  and  Rhetoric  .    .    .    .  l  50 

This  work  furnishes  all  the  aid  that  is  needful  or  can  bp  desired  in 
the  various  departments  and  styles  of  composition,  both  inprcse  and  verse. 

Day's  Art  of  Rhetoric i  25 

Noted  for  exactness  of  definition,  clear  limitation,  and  philosophical 
development  of  subject;  the  large  share  of  attention  given  to  Inventkm, 
«i  a  branch  of  Rnetoric,  and  the  unequalled  analysis  of  style 

38 


The  JK'^atiojiat  Series  of  Standard  Schoot-^ooks. 

MENTAL    PHILOSOPHY. 

Mahan's  Intellectual  Philosophy ti  75 

The  subject  exhaustively  considered.  The  author  has  evinced  learning,  candor, 
and  independent  thinking. 

Mahan's  Science  of  Logic 200 

A  profound  analysis  of  the  laws  of  thought.  The  system  possesses  the  merit  of 
beinof  intelligible  and  self  consistent.  In  addition  to  the  author's  carefully  elabo- 
rated views,  It  embraces  results  attained  by  the  ablest  minds  of  Great  Britain,  Ger- 
many, and  France,  in  this  department. 

Boyd's  Elements  of  Logic    ........    1  25 

A  systematic  and  philosophic  condensation  of  the  subject,  fortified  with  additions 
from  Watts,  Abercrombie,  Whately,  &c. 

Watts  on  the  Mind so 

The  Improvement  of  the  Mind,  by  Isaac  Watts,  is  designed  as  a  guide  for  the 
attainment  of  useful  knowledge.  As  a  text-book  it  is  unparalleled;  and  the  disci- 
pline it  affords  cannot  be  too  highly  esteemed  by  the  educator. 

MORALS^ 


Peabody's  Moral  Pliilosophy i  25 

A  sho.t  course ;  by  the  Professor  of  Christian  Morals,  Harvard  University— for 
the  Freshman  Class  and  for  High  Schools. 

Alden's  Text-Book  of  Ethics    .......     60 

For  young  pupils.  To  aid  in  systematizing  the  ethical  teachings  of  the  Bible, 
and  point  out  the  coincidences  between  the  instructions  of  the  sacred  volume  and 
the  sound  conclusions  of  reason. 

Willard's  Morals  for  the  Young W 

Lessons  in  conversational  style  to  inculcate  the  elements  of  moral  philosophy. 
The  study  is  made  attractive  by  narratives  and  engravings. 

GOVERNMENT. 

Howe's  Young  Citizen's  Catechism    ....       75 

Explaining  the  duties  of  District,  Town,  City,  County,  Stale,  and  United  States 
Oiticers,  with  rules  for  parliamentary  and  commercial  business — that  which  every 
future  "  sovereign  "  ought  to  know,  and  so  few  are  taught. 

Young's  Lessons  in  Civil  Government      .    .    i  25 

A  comprehensive  view  of  Government,  and  abstract  of  the  laws  showing  the 
rights,  duties,  and  responsibilities  of  citizens. 

Mansfield's  Political  Manual      i  25 

This  is  a  complete  view  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  the  General  and  State  Gov- 
ernments of  the  United  States,  desi^ied  as  a  text-book.  The  author  is  an  esteemed 
and  able  professor  of  constitutional  law,  widely  known  for  his  sagacious  utterances 
in  matters  of  statecraft  through  the  public  press.  Recent  events  teach  with  em- 
phasis the  vital  necessity  that  the  rising  generation  should  comprehend  the  noble 
polity  of  the  American  government,  that  they  may  act  intelligently  when  endo^i^ed 
With  a  voice  in  it. 

39 


27^6'  J\rational  Series^  of  Standard  Schoot-^ooks* 

MODERN  LANGUAGE. 

French  and  English  Primer, 4    13 

German  and  English  Primer, lo 

Spanish  and  English  Primer, :r3 

The  names  of  commou  objects  properly  illustrated  and  arranged  in  sasy 
lessons. 

Ledru's  French  Fables, 75 

iedru's  French  Grammar, i  oo 

Ledru's  French  Reader, .    .    .   «» l  oo 

The  author's  long  experience  has  enabled  him  to  present  the  most  thor- 
oughly practical  text-books  extant,  in  this  branch.  The  systam  of  pro- 
nunciation (by  phonetic  illustration)  is  original  with  this  author,  and  will 
commend  itself  to  all  American  teachers,  as  it  e:uibles  their  pupils  to  se- 
cure an  absolutely  correct  pronunciation  without  the  assistance  of  a  nativa 
master.  This  feature  is  peculiarly  valuable  also  to  "  self-taught"  students. 
The  directions  for  ascertaining  the  gender  of  French  nouns — ^also  a  great 
etumbling-block— are  peculiar  to  this  work,  and  will  be  found  remarkably 
competent  to  the  end  proposed.  The  criticism  of  teachers  and  the  test  of 
the  school-room  is  invited  to  this  excellent  series,  with  coafideaco. 

Worman's  French  Echo, i  25 

To  teach  conversational  French  by  actual  practice,  on  an  entirely  new 
plan,  which  recognizes  the  importance  of  the  student  learning  to  think  in 
the  language  which  he  speaks.  It  furnishes  an  extensive  vocabulary  of 
words  and  expressions  in  common  use,  and  suffices  to  free  the  learner 
from  the  embarrassmeiits  which  the  peculiarities  of  his  own  tongue  are 
likely  to  be  to  him,  and  to  make  him  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  uso 
of  proper  idioms. 

Worman's  German  Echo, i  25 

On  the  same  plan.    See  Worman's  German  Series,  paga  42. 

Pujol's  Complete  French  Class-Book,  ...  2  25 

Offers,  in  one  volume,  methodically  arranged,  a  complete  French  course 
—usually  embraced  in  series  of  from  five  to  twelve  books,  including  the 
bulky  and  expensive  Lexicon.  Here  are  Grammar,  Conversation,  and 
choice  Literature — selected  from  the  best  French  authors.  Each  branch 
is  thoroughly  handled  ;  and  the  student,  having  diligently  completed  tho 
course  as  prescribed,  may  consider  himself,  without  further  application, 
mi  fait  in  the  most  polite  and  elegant  language  of  modern  times. 

Maurice-Poitevin's  Grammaire  Francaise,  •  1  00 

American  schools  are  at  last  supplied  with  an  American  edition  of  this 
famous  text-book.  Many  of  our  best  institutions  have  for  years  been  pro- 
curing it  from  abroad  rather  than  forego  the  advantages  it  offers.  The 
policy  of  putting  students  who  have  acquired  some  proficiency  from  the 
ordinary  text-books,  into  a  Grammar  written  in  the  vernacular,  can  nofc 
to  too  highly  commended.  It  affords  an  opportunity  for  finish  and  review 
«t  once ;  while  embodying  abundant  practice  of  its  own  rules. 

Joynes'  French  Pronunciation,    .....       30 
Willard's  Historia  de  los  Estados  Unidos, .  2  00 

The  History  of  the  United  States,  translated  by  Professors  Tolox  and 
pB  yoKNos,  will  be  found  a  valuable,  iixstruetive;  aad  entcrtaiaiag  read- 
Ing-W^  for  Spanish  classes.  ^  ^ 


The  JVationat  Series  of  Standard  School-^ooks, 

Pujol's  Complete  French  Class-Book. 

TESTIMONIALS. 
^rom  rROF.  Elias  Peissner,  Union  College. 
I  take  great  pleasure  in  recommending  Pujoi  and  Van  Norman's  French  Class- 
Book,  as  there  is  no  :Frencli  grammar  or  class-book  which  can  be  compared  with 
It  in  completeness,  system,  clearness,  and  general  utility. 

F'^m  Edwaed  North,  President  of  Hamilton  College. 
I  have  carpfvJly  examined  Pujol  and  Van  Norman's  French  Class-Book,  and  am 
•atisfied  'of  its  superiority,  for  college  pui*poses,  over  any  other  heretofore  used. 
We  shall  POt  fail  to  use  it  with  our  next  class  in  French. 

J?Vw  A.  Curtis,  PrcsH  of  Cincinnati  Literary  and  Scientific  Institute. 
I  am  confident  that  it  may  be  made  an  instrument  in  conveying  to  the  student, 
In  fr'jm  six  months  to  a  year,  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing  the  French  with 
aJinoRt  native  fluency  and  propriety. 

From  Hiram  Orcutt,  A.  M,,  Prin.  Glenwood  and  Tilden  Ladies'^  Seminaries. 

I  have  used  Pujol's  French  Grammar  in  my  two  reminaries,  exclusively,  for 
more  than  a  year,  and  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  I  regard  it  the  best  text- 
book in  this  department  extant.  And  my  opinion  is  conflrmed  by  the  testimony 
of  Prof.  F.  De  Launay  and  Madcmoic-elic  Marindin.  They  assure  me  that  the 
book  is  eminently  accurate  and  practical,  as  tested  in  the  school-room. 

From  Prof.  Theo.  F.  Be  Fumat,  Hebrew  Educational  Institute,  MempJds,  Tenn. 
M.  Pujol's  French  Grammar  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  practical  works.  The 
French  language  is  chosen  and  elegant  in  style — modern  and  easy.  It  is  far  su- 
perior to  the  other  French  class-books  in  this  country.  The  selection  of  the  con- 
versational part  is  very  good,  and  will  interest  pupils  ;  and  being  all  completed  in 
only  one  volume,  it  is  especially  desirable  to  have  it  introduced  m  our  schools. 

From  Prof.  Jaiies  n.  Worm  an,  Bordentown  Female  College,  N.  J. 
The  work  is  upon  the  same  plan  as  the  text-books  for  the  stndy  of  French  and 
English  published  in  Berlin,  lor  the  study  of  those  who  have  not  the  aid  of  a 
teacher,  and  these  books  are  considered,  by  the  first  authorities,  the  best  books. 
In  most  of  our  institutions,  Am.ericans  teach  the  modem  languages,  and  hereto- 
fore the  trouble  has  been  to  give  them  a  text-book  that  would  dispose  of  the 
difficulties  of  the  French  pronunciation.  This  dilSculty  is  successfully  removed 
by  P.  and  Van  N.,  and  I  have  every  reason  to  believe  it  will  soon  make  its  way 
into  most  of  our  best  schools. 

From  Prof.  Charles  S.  Dod,  Ann  Smith  Academy,  Leoaingfon,  Va. 
I  cannot  do  better  than  to  recommend  "  Pujol  and  Van  Norman."   For  compre- 
hensive and  systematic  arrangement,  progressive  and  thorough  development  of 
all  grammatical  principles  and  idioms,  v/ith  a  due  admixture  of  theoretical  knowl- 
edge and  practical  exercise,  I  regard  it  as  superior  to  any  (other)  bock  of  tlie  kind. 

From  A.  A.  Forster,  Prin.  Pineliurst  School,  Toronto,  C.  W. 
I  have  great  satisfaction  in  bearing  testimony  to  M.  Pujol's  System  of  French 
Instruction,  as  given  in  hi 3  complete  class-book.  For  clearness  and  compichcn- 
Livcness,  adapted  for  all  classes  of  pupils,  I  have  found  it  superior  to  cry  other 
work  of  the  kind,  and  have  now  used'it  for  some  years  in  my  establishment  with 
great  success. 

From  Prof.  Otto  Tedder,  Maplewood  Institute,  Pittsfield,  Mass. 
The  conversational  exercises  will  prove  an  immense  raving  of  the  hardest  kind 
ot  labor  to  teachers.  There  is  scarcely  any  thing  more  tiying  in  the  way  of 
teaching  language,  than  to  rack  your  brain  for  short  and  easily  intelligible  hits 
of  conversa1;ion,  and  to  repeat  them  time  and  again  with  no  better  remit  than 
extorting  at  long  intervals  a  doubting  "  oui,"  or  a  hesitating  "  non,  monsicnr  " 

f^"  For  fhrther  testimony  of  a  similar  character,  see  special  circular,  a^id 
currexit  numbers  of  the  Educational  Bulletin. 

41 


The  JVational  Series  of  Standard  Sc?ioot-:Books. 

GERMAN. 


A  COMPLETE  OOUESE  IN  THE  GERMAN. 

By  JAMES   H.  WORMAN,  A.  M. 

Worman's  Elementary  German  Grammar  .$i  so 
Worman's  Complete  German  Grammar      .  2  oo 

These  volumes  are  designed  for  intermediate  and  advanced  classes  respectively. 

Though  following  the  same  general  method  with  "Otto*'  (that  of  'Gaspey'), 
our  author  differs  essentially  in  its  application.  He  is  more  practical,  more  sys- 
tematic, more  accurate,  and  besides  introduces  a  number  of  invaluable  feature* 
which  have  never  before  been  combined  in  a  German  grammar. 

Among  other  things,  it  may  be  claimed  for  Prof.  Worman  that  he  has  beeu 
Vie  Jlrst  to  introduce  in  an  American  text-book  for  learning  German,  a  system 
of  analogy  and  comparison  with  other  languages.  Our  best  teachers  are  also 
enthusiastic  about  his  methods  of  inculcating  the  art  of  speaking,  of  understanding 
the  spoken  language,  of  correct  pronunciation ;  the  sensible  and  convenient  origi' 
nal  classification  of  nouns  (in  four  declensions),  and  of  irregular  verbs,  also  de* 
serves  much  praise.  We  also  note  the  use  of  heavy  type  to  indicate  etymological 
changes  in  the  paradigms.  »nd,  in  the  exercises,  the  parts  which  specially  illustrate 
preceding  rules. 

Worman's  Elementary  German  Reader  .    .    i  25 
Worman's  Collegiate  German  Reader  .    .    .    2  oo 

The  finest  and  most  judicious  compilation  of  classical  and  standard  German 
Literature.  These  works  embrace,  progressively  arranged,  selections  from  the 
masterpieces  of  Goethe,  Schiller,  Komer,  Seume,  Uhland,  Freiligrath,  Heine, 
Schlegel,  Holty,  Lcnau,  Wieland,  Herder,  Lessing,  Kant,  Fichte,  Schelling,  Win- 
kelmann,  Humboldt,  Ranke,  Raumer,  Menzel,  Gervinus,  &c.,  and  contains  com- 
plete Goethe's  "IpLigenie,"  Schiller's  "  Jungfrau;"  also,  for  instruction  in  mod- 
ern conversational  German,  Benedix's  "  Eigensinn." 

There  are  besides,  Biographical  Sketches  of  each  author  contributing,  Notes, 
explanatory  and  philological  (after  the  text).  Grammatical  References  to  all  lead- 
ing grammars,  as  well  as  the  editor's  own,  and  an  adequate  Vocabulary. 

Worman's  German  Echo i  25 

Consists  of  exercises  in  colloquial  style  entirely  in  the  German,  with  an  ade- 
quate vocabulary,  not  only  of  words  but  of  idioms.  The  object  of  the  system  cic- 
veloped  in  this  work  (and  its  companion  volume  in  the  French)  is  to  break  up  the 
laborious  and  tedious  habit  of  translating  the  thoughts^  which  is  the  student's 
most  effectual  bar  to  fluent  conversation,  and  to  lead  him  to  think  in  the  language 
in  which  he  speaks.  As  the  exercises  illustrate  scenes  in  actual  life,  a  considera- 
ble knowledge  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  German  pcoplo  is  also  acquired 
from  the  us8  of  this  manual. 

Worman's  German  Copy-Books,  %  Numbers,  each      15 

On  the  same  plan  as  the  most  approved  systems  for  English  penmanship,  with 
progressive  copies. 

42 


The  J\yiiional  Series  of  Sia7ida7^d  School-^ooks, 

Worman's  German  Grammars. 

TESTIMONIALS, 

From  Prof.  K.  W.  Jones,  Petersburg  Female  College,  Va. 
From  -what  I  have  seen  of  the  work  it  Is  almost  certain  /  shall  introducs  it  into 
this  institution. 

From  Prof.  G.  Campbeli,,  University  of  Minnesota. 
A  valuable  addition  to  our  school-books,  &iid  -will  find  many  friends,  and  do  great 
good. 

From  Prof.  O.  II  P.  "Corprew,  Mary  3Iilitary  Inst ,  31  d. 
I  am  better  pleased  with  them  than  any  I  havo  ever  taught.    I  hare  already  ordered 
through  our  booksellers. 

From,  Prof.  K.  S.  Kendall,  Veryton  Academy^  Conn. 
I  at  once  put  the  Elementary  Grammar  into  tha  hands  of  a  class  of  beginners,  and 
have  used  it  with  great  satisfaction. 

From  Prof.  D.  E.  Holmes,  Berlin  Academy,  Wis. 
"Worman's  German  works  are  superior.    I  shall  uso  them  hereafter  in  my  German 
classes. 

From  Prof.  Magnus  Buchholtz,  ITlram  College^  OJdo. 
I  have  examined  the  Complete  Grammar,  and  find  It  excellent.    You  may  rely  that 
it  trill  be  used  here. 

From  Prin.  Thos.  "W.  Tobey,  Paducah  Female  Seminary,  ICy. 
The  Complete  German  Grammar  is  worthy  of  an  exteaoive  circulation.     It  is  ad' 
mirably  adapted  to  the  class-room.    I  shall  use  it. 

From  Prof.  Alex.  Eosenspitz,  Houston  Academy^  Texas. 
Bearer  will  take  and  pay  for  3  dozen  copies.    Mr.  Worms.a  deserves  the  approbation 
and  esteem  of  the  teacher  and  the  thanks  of  the  student. 

From  Prof.  G.  Malmene,  Augusta  Seminary,  Maine. 
The  Complete  Grammar  cannot  fail  to  giva  great  satisfaction  by  the  simplicity 
of  its  arrangement,  and  by  its  completeness. 

From  Prin.  Oval  Tirkey,  Christian  University,  Mo. 
Just  such  a  series  as  is  positively  necessary.     I  do  hope  the  author  will  succeed  as 
•well  in  the  French,  &c.,  as  he  has  in  the  German. 

From,  Prof.  S.  D.  IIillman,  Dickinson  College,  Pa. 
The  class  have  lately  commenced,  and  my  examination  thus  far  warrants  me  in  say- 
ing that  I  regard  it  as  the  best  grammar  for  instruction  in  the  German. 

From  Prin.  Silas  Livermore,  Bloomfleld  Seminary,  3fo. 
1  have  found  a  classically  and  scientifically  educated  Prussian  gentleman  whom  I 

?ropose  to  make  German  instructcr.   I  have  shown  him  both  your  German  grammars, 
le  has  expressed  his  approbation  of  them  generally. 

From  Prof.  Z.  Test,  Rowland  School  for  Young  Ladles,  K.  Y. 
I  shall  introduce  the  books.     From  a  cursory  examination  I  have  no  hesitation  in 
pronouncing  the  Complete  Grammar  a  decided  improvement  on  the  text-books  at 
present  in  use  in  this  country. 

From  Prof.  Lewis  Kistler,  Northwestern  University,  III. 
Having  looked  through  the  Complete  Grammar  with  some  care  I  must  say  that  you 
have  produced  a  good  book  ;  you  may  be  awarded  with  this  gratification — that  your 
grammar  promotes  the  facility  of  learning  the  German  language,  and  of  becoming 
acquainted  with  its  rich  literature. 

From  Pres.  J.  P.  Rous,  Stock-well  Collegiate  Inat.,  Ind. 
I  supplied  a  class  with  the  Elementary  Grammar,  and  it  gives  complete  sattsfaO' 
tion.     The  conversational  and  reading  exercises  are  well  calculated  to  illustrate  the 
principlas,  and  lead  the  student  on  an  easy  yet  thorough  course.    I  thiok  the  Com 
plp.te  Grammar  equally  attractive. 


National  Series  of  Slanda7^d  School-^Boofys. 

THE    CLASSICS, 


LATIN. 
Silber's  Latin  Course, $i  25 

The  book  contains  an  Epitome  of  Latin  Grammar,  followed  by  Heading  Exercises, 
•\7ith  explanatory  Notes  and  copious  References  to  the  leading  Latin  Grammars,  arid 
also  to  the  Epitome  which  precedes  the  work.  Then  follow  a  Latin-English  Vocabu- 
lary and  Exercises  in  Latin  Prose  Composition,  being  thus  complete  in  itself,  and  x 
very  suitable  work  to  put  in  the  hands  of  one  about  to  study  the  language. 

Searing's  Virgil's  ^neid, 2  25 

It  contains  only  the  first  six  books  of  the  -^neid.  2.  A  very  carefully  constructed 
Dictionary.  3.  Sufficiently  copious  Notes.  4.  Grammatical  references  to  four  lead- 
ing Grammars.  6.  Numerous  Illustrations  of  the  highest  order,  6.  A  superb  Map 
of  the  Mediterranean  and  adjacent  countries,  7.  Dr.  S.  II.  Taylor's  "  Questions  on 
the  ^neid."  8.  A  Metrical  Index,  and  an  Essay  on  the  Poetical  Style.  9.  A  photo- 
graphic f(JiAi  simile  of  an  early  Latin  M.S.  10.  The  text  according  to  Jahn,  but  para- 
graphed according  to  Ladewig.    11.  Superior  mechanical  execution, 

Blair's  Latin  Pronunciation, i  oo 

'  An  inquiry  into  the  proper  gounds  of  the  Language  during  the  Classical  Period. 
By  Prof.  Blair,  of  Hampden  Sidney  College,  Ya. 


Andrews  &  Stoddard's  Latin  Grammar,  ^i  so 

Andrews'  Questions  on  the  Grammar,     .  *o  15 

Andrews'  Latin  Exercises, *i  25 

Andrews'  Viri  Romae, .........  *i  25 

Andrews'  Sallust's  Jugurthine  War,  &c.  *i  so 

Andrews'  Eclogues  &  Georgics  of  Virgil,  *1  so 

Andrews'  Caesar's  Commentaries,  •    .   •    •  *i  so 

Andrews'  Ovid's  Metamorphoses,     •    •    •  ^i  25 

GREEK. 

Crosby's  Greek  Grammar, 2  oo 

Crosby's  Xenophon's  Anabasis, i  25 

Searing's  Homer's  Iliad,    »    -    » 

MYTHOLOaY. 
Dwight's  Grecian  and  Roman  Mythology. 

School  edition,  §1  25;  University  edition,     -'3  03 

A  knowledge  of  the  fables  of  antiqaity,  thus  presented  in  a  systematic  form,  is  as 
indispensable  to  the  student  of  general  literature  as  to  him  who  would  peruse  intelli- 
gently the  classical  authors.  The  mythological  allusions  bo  frequent  in  literaturo  ace 
KeaOilj  understood  with  such  a  Key  as  this. 

44 


2'he  JVatlojial  Series  of  Sia?*da7^d  Schoot-^ooks, 


SEARING'S  VIRGIL. 


SPECIMEN  FRAGMENTS  OP  LETTERS. 

*'I  adopt  it  gladly."— Prin.  V.  Dabney,  Loudoun  School,  Va. 

"  I  like  Searing's  Virgil."— Pbop.  Bristol,  Eipon  College,  Wis. 

*' Meets  my  desires  very  thoroughly."— Prof.  Clark,  Berea  College,  Ohio. 

**  Superior  to  any  other  edition  of  Virgil."— Pres.  Hall,  Macon  College,  Mo. 

"Shall  adopt  it  at  once."— Prin.  B.  P.  Baker,  Searcy  Female  Institute,  Ark. 

"Your  Virgil  is  a  beauty.'''— Firov.  W.  H.  Db  Motte,  Illinois  Female  College. 

"After  use,  I  regard  it  the  best."— Prin.  G.  H.  Barton,  Home  Academy,  N. T. 

"  We  like  it  better  every  day."— Prin.  R.  K.  Buehrle,  Allentown  Academy,  Pa. 

*'  I  am  delighted  with  your  Virgil."— Prin.  W.  T.  Leonard,  Pierce  Academy,  Mass. 

"Stands  well  the  test  of  class-room."— Prin.  F.  A.  Chase,  Lyons  Col.  Inst.,  Iowa. 

"I  do  not  see  how  it  can  he  improved."— Prin.  N.  F.  D.  Browne,  Charl.  Hall,  Md. 

"  The  most  complete  that  I  have  seen."— Prin.  A.  Brown,  Columbus  High  School, 
Ohio. 

"  Our  Professor  of  Language  very  highly  approves."- Supt.  J.  G.  James,  Texas 
Military  Institute. 

"It  responds  to  a  want  long  felt  by  teachers.  It  is  beautiful  and  complete." — 
Prof.  Brooks,  University  of  Minnesota. 

"  The  ideal  edition.  We  want  a  few  more  classics  of  the  same  sort."— Prin.  C.  F. 
P.  Bancroft,  Lookout  Mountain  Institute,  Tenn. 

"  I  certainly  have  never  seen  an  edition  so  complete  with  important  requisites  for 
a  student,  nor  with  such  fine  text  and  general  mechanical  execution." — Pres.  J.  R. 
Park,  University  of  Deseret,  Utah. 

"  It  is  charming  both  in  its  design  and  execution.  And,  on  the  whole,  I  think  it 
^s  the  best  thing  of  the  kind  that  I  have  seen."— Prof.  J.  De  F.  Richards,  Pies, 
pro  tern,  of  University  of  Alabama. 

"  In  beauty  of  execution,  in  judicious  notes,  and  in  an  adequate  vocabulary,  it 
merits  all  praise.  I  shall  recommend  its  introduction." — Pres.  J.  K.  Patterson, 
Kentucky  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College. 

"  Containing  a  good  vocabulary  and  judicious  notes,  it  will  enable  the  industrious 
student  to  acquire  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  most  interesting  part  of  Virgil's 
works."— Prof.  J.  T.  Dunklin,  Eai^t  Alal)ama  College. 

"It  wants  no  element  of  completeness.  It  is  by  far  the  best  classical  text-book 
with  which  I  am  acquainted.  The  notes  are  just  right.  They  help  the  student 
when  he  most  needs  help."— Prin.  C.  A.  Bunker,  Caledonia  Grammar  School,  Vt. 

"I  have  examined  Searing's  Virgil  with  interest,  and  find  that  it  more  nearly 
meets  the  wants  of  students  than  that  of  any  other  edition  with  which  I  am  ac- 
quainted. I  am  able  to  introduce  it  to  some  extent  at  once." — Prin.  J.  Easter, 
Mlast  Genesee  Conference  Seminary. 

"I  have  been  wishing  to  get  a  sight  of  it,  and  it  exceeds  my  expectations.  It  is 
a  beautiful  book  in  every  respect,  and  bears  evidence  of  careful  and  critical  study. 
The  engravings  add  instruction  as  well  as  interest  to  the  work.  I  shall  recommend 
it  to  my  classes."— Prin.  Chas.  H.  Chandler,  Glenwood  Ladies''  Seminary. 

"A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.  have  published  an  edition  of  the  first  six  books  of  Vireril's 
JEneid,  which  is  superior  to  its  predecessors  in  several  respects.  The  publishers 
have  done  a  good  service  to  the  cause  of  classical  education,  and  the  book  deserves 
a  large  circulation." — Prof.  George  W.  Collord,  Brooklyn  Polytechnic,  iV.  Y. 

"My  attention  was  called  to  Searing's  Virgil  by  the  fact  of  its  containing  a  voca- 
bulary which  would  obviate  the  necessity  of  procuring  a  lexicon.  But  use  in  th« 
tfass-room  has  impressed  me  most  favorably  with  the  accuracy  and  just  proportion 
of  its  notes,  and  the  general  excellence  of  its  grammatical  suggestions.  The  gen- 
eral character  of  the  book  in  its  paper,  its  typography,  and  its  engravings  is  highly 
commendable,  and  the  fac-simile  manuscript  is  a  valuable  feature.  I  take  great 
pleasure  in  commending  the  book  to  all  who  do  not  wish  a  complete  edition  of 
Virgil.  It  suits  our  short  school  courses  admirably."— Henry  L.  Boltwood,  Master 
^Princetm  High  School,  III. 

.45 


The  JVallonal  Series   of  Standa^^d  Schoot-^ooks, 

RECORDS. 


Tracy's  School  Record, •   .*$o  75 

Tracy's  Pocket  Record, *65 

For  keeping  a  simple  but  exact  record  of  Attendance,  Deportment,  and  Scholar- 
gliip  ;  containing  also  a  Calendar,  an  extensive  list  of  Topics  for  Compositions  and 
Colloquies,  Themes  for  Short  Lectures,  Suggestions  to  Young  Teachers,  etc. 

The  pocket  edition  is  of  smaller  size,  with  blanks  on  the  same  plan,  for  con- 
venience of  handling,  etc. 

Brooks'  Teacher's  Register,    .......  *i  oo 

Presents  at  one  view  a  record  of  Attendance,  Recitations,  and  Deportment  for  the 
whole  term. 

Carter's  Record  and  Roll-Book, *i  so 

This  is  the  most  complete  and  convenient  Record  offered  to  the  public.  Besides 
the  usual  spaces  for  General  Scholarship,  Deportment,  Attendance,  etc.,  for  each 
name  and  day,  there  is  a  space  in  red  lines  enclosing  six  minor  spaces  in  blue  for 
recording  Recitations; 

National  School  Diary, Per  dozen,  *i  oo 

A  little  book  of  blank  forms  for  weekly  report  of  the  standing  of  each  scholar, 
from  teacher  to  parent.    A  great  convenience. 


REWARDS. 


National  School  Currency,   ....    Per  set,*$i  50 

A  little  box  containing  certificates  in  the  form  of  Mone^.  The  most  entertaining 
and  stimulating  system  of  school  rewards.  The  scholar  is  paid  for  his  merits  and 
fined  for  his  shortcomings.  Of  course  the  most  faithful  are  the  most  successful  in 
business.  In  this  way  the  use  and  value  of  money  and  the  method  of  keeping 
accounts  are  also  taught.    One  box  of  Currency  will  supply  a  school  of  fifty  pupils. 


TACTICS. 


The  Boy  Soldier, 75 

8,  wit 
►n  froi 

46 


Complete  Infantry  Tactics  for  Schools,  with  illustrations,  for  the  use  of  those  who 
would  introduce  this  pleasing  relaxation  from  the  confining  duties  of  the  desk. 


The  J^ationat  Series  of  Standard  School-^ooks* 

CHARTS. 


McKenzie's  Elocutionary  Chart, $3  50 

Baade's  Reading  Case, no  00 

This  remarkable  piece  of  school-room  furniture  is  a  receptacle  containing  a  num- 
ber of  primary  cards.  By  an  arrangement  of  slides  on  the  front,  one  sentence  at  a 
time  is  shown  to  the  class.  Twenty-eight  thousand  transpositions  may  be  made, 
affording  a  variety  of  progressive  exercises  which  no  other  piece  of  apparatus 
offers.  One  of  its  best  features  is,  that  it  is  so  exceedingly  simple  as  not  to  get  out 
of  order,  while  it  may  be  operated  with  one  finger. 

Marcy's  Eureka  Tablet, *i  50 

A  new  system  for  the  Alphabet,  by  which  it  may  be  taught  without  fail  in  nine 
lessons. 

Scofield's  School  Tablets, *8  oo 

On  Five  Cards,  exhibiting  Ten  Surfaces.  These  Tablets  teach  Orthography, 
Reading,  Object-Lessons,  Color,  Form,  etc. 

Watson's  Phonetic  Tablets, *8  oo 

Four  Cards,  and  Eight  Surfaces ;  teaching  Pronunciation  and  Elocution  phonetic- 
any— for  class  exercises. 

Page's  Normal  Chart,  •   •   • *3  75 

The  whole  science  of  Elementary  Sounds  tabulated.  By  the  author  of  Page's 
Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching. 

Clark's  Grammatical  Chart, *3  75 

Exhibits  the  whole  Science  of  Language  in  one  comprehensive  diagram. 

Davies'  Mathematical  Chart, *75 

Mathematics  made  simple  to  the  eye. 

Monteith's  Reference  Maps, *30  oo 

Eight  Numbers.  Mounted  on  Rollers.  Names  all  laid  down  in  small  type,  so 
that  to  the  pupil  at  a  short  distance  they  are  Outline  Maps,  while  they  serve  as 
their  own  key  to  the  teacher. 

Willard's  Chronographers, Each,  *2  oo 

Historical.  Four  Numbers.  Ancient  Chronographer ;  English  Chronographer ; 
American  Chronographer ;  Temple  of  Time  (general).  Dates  and  Events  repre- 
sented to  the  eye. 

APPARATUS. 

Harrinqton's  Geometrical  Blocks,    •   •   •   .*^io  oo 

These  patented  blocks  are  hinged^  so  that  each  form  can  be  dissected. 

Harrington's  Fractional  Blocks, *8  oo 

Steele's  Chemical  Apparatus,  .   .  *20  oo 

Steele's  Philosophical  Apparatus,  (see  p.28)*i25  oo 
Steele's  Geological  Cabinet,  (see  p.28)  .  .  .  *40  oo 
Wood's  Botanical  Apparatus,  (see  p.30 )  .  .  *8  oo 
Bock's  Physiological  Apparatus,    ...  175  oo 

47 


The  JYailonat   2'eache7's^  Xldrarjy, 


TEACHERS'  LIBRARY. 


Object  Lessons-Welch    ........   .*$i  oc 

This  is  a  complete  exposition  of  the  popular  modem  system  of 
"  object-teaching,"  for  teachers  of  primary  classes. 

Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching— Page  •   .  *i  50 

This  volume  has,  without  doubt,  been  read  by  two  hundred  thousand 
teachers,  and  its  popularity  remains  undiminished— large  editions 
being  exhausted  yearly.  It  was  the  pioneer,  as  it  is  now  the  patri- 
arch of  professional  works  for  teachers. 

The  Graded  School-Wells *i  25 

The  proper  w^ay  to  organize  graded  schools  is  here  illustrated.  The 
author  has  availed  himself  of  the  best  elements  of  the  several  systems 
prevalent  in  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis, 
juad  other  cities. 

The  Normal— Holbrook .   .  *i  50 

Carries  a  working  school  on  its  visit  to  teachers,  showing  the  most 
approved  methods  of  teaching  all  the  common  branches,  including  the 
technicalities,  explanations,  demonstrations,  and  definitions  intro- 
ductory and  peculiar  to  each  branch. 

The  Teachers'  Institute— Fowle *i  25 

This  is  a  volume^^of  suggestions  inspired  by  the  author^ a  experience 
at  institutes,  in  the' instruction  of  young  teachers.  A  thousand  points 
of  interest  to  this  class  are  most  satisfactorily  dealt  with. 

Schools  and  Schoolmasters— Dickens  •   .   .  *i  25 

Appropriate  selections  from  the  writings  of  the  great  novelist 

The  Metric  System— Davies *i  50 

Considered  with  reference  to  its  general  introduction,  and  embrac- 
ing the  views  of  John  Quincy  Adams  and  Sir  John  Herschel. 

The  Student;— The  Educator— Phelps    •  each,*!  50 
The  Discipline  of  Life-Phelps *l  75 

The  authoress  of  these  works  is  one  of  the  jnoet  distinguished 
writers  on  education ;  and  they  cannot  fail  to  prove  a  valuable  addi- 
tion to  the  School  and  Teachers'  Libraries,  being  in  a  high  degree 
both  interesting  and  instructive. 

k  Scientific  Basis  of  Education— Hecker  •   .  *3  50 

Adaptation  of  study  and  classification  by  temperaments. 

Orton's  Liberal  Education  of  Women,    .   .    *i  50 

48 


2'he  JVational  2'eachers'  jOib7'ary. 


Liberal  Education  of  Women— Orion    .    .    ""^i  50 

Treats  of  ''  the  demand  and  the  method ;"  being  a  compilation  of  the  best  and 
most  advanced  thought  on  this  subject,  by  the  leading  writers  and  educators  in 
England  and  America.    Edited  by  a  Professor  in  Vassar  College. 

Education  Abroad— Nortiirop *i  50 

A  thorough  discussion  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  sending  American 
children  to  Europe  to  be  educated ;  also,  Papers  on  Legal  Prevention  of  Illiteracy, 
Study  and  Health,  Labor  as  an  Educator,  and  other  kindred  subjects.  By  the  Hon. 
Secretary  of  Education  for  Connecticut. 

The  Teacher  and  the  Parent— Northend  •   •  *i  so 

A  treatise  upon  common-school  education,  designed  to  lead  teachers  to  view  their 
calling  in  its  true  light,  and  to  stimulate  them  to  tidelity. 

The  Teachers^  Assistant— Northend  .    .    .    .  '*i  50 

A  natural  continuation  of  the  author's  previous  work,  more  directly  calculated  for 
daily  use  in  the  administration  of  school  discipline  and  instruction. 

School  Government— Jewell *i  so 

Full  of  advanced  ideas  on  the  subject  which  its  title  indicates.  The  criticisms 
upon  current  theories  of  punishment  and  schemes  of  administration  have  excited 
general  attention  and  comment. 

Grammatical  Diagrams— Jewell "^i  oo 

The  diagram  system  of  teaching  grammar  explained,  defended,  and  improved. 
The  curious  in  literature,  the  searcher  for  truth,  those  interested  in  new  inventions, 
as  well  as  the  disciples  of  Prof.  Clark,  who  would  see  their  favorite  theoi-y  fairly 
treated,  all  want  this  book.  There  are  many  who  would  like  to  be  made  familiar 
with  this  system  before  risking  its  use  in  a  class.    The  opportunity  is  here  afforded. 

The  Complete  Examiner— Stone *i  ^^ 

Consists  of  a  series  of  questions  on  every  English  branch  of  school  and  academic 
instruction,  with  reference  to  a  given  page  or  article  of  leading  text-books  where 
the  answer  may  be  found  in  full.  Prepared  to  aid  teachers  in  securing  certificates^ 
pupils  in  preparing  for  promotion,  and  teachers  in  selecting  review  questions. 

School  Amusements— Root *i  so 

To  assist  teachers  in  makinc^  the  school  interesting,  with  hints  upon  the  manage- 
ment of  the  school-room.  EuTes  for  military  and  gymnastic  exercises  are  included. 
Illustrated  by  diagrams. 

Institute  Lectures— Bates *    .   .  n  50 

These  lectures,  originally  delivered  before  institutes,  are  based  upon  various 
topics  in  the  departments  of  mental  and  moral  culture.  The  volume  is  calculated 
to  prepare  the  will,  awaken  the  inquiry,  and  stimulate  the  thought  of  the  zealous 
teacher. 

Pflelhod  of  Teachers'  Institutes-Bates   •   •   •   *75 

Sets  forth  the  best  method  of  conducting  institutes,  with  a  detailed  account  of  the 
object,  organization,  plan  of  instruction,  and  true  theory  of  education  on  which 
such  instruction  should  be  based. 

History  and  Progress  of  Education  .    .    .    .  *i  50 

The  systems  of  education  prevailing  in  all  nations  and  ages,  the  gradual  advance 
to  the  present  time,  and  the  bearing  of  the  past  upon  the  present  in  this  regard,  ar« 
worthy  of  the  careful  investigation  of  all  concerned  in  education. 

49 


TTie  JVationai  Teachers*  Zibraty. 

American  Education— Mansfield $i  50 

A  treatise  on  the  principles  and  elements  of  education,  as  practiced  i» 
this  country,  with  ideas  towards  distinctive  republican  and  Cftristian  edu- 
cation. 

American  Institutions— De  Tocqueville   .    .*i  so 

A  valuable  index  to  the  genius  of  our  Government. 

Universal  Education— Mayhew     .    .    .    .    .*i  75 

The  subject  is  approached  with  the  clear,  keen  perception  of  one  who 
has  observed  its  necessity,  and  realized  its  feasibility  and  expediency 
alike.  The  redeeming  and  elevating  power  of  improved  common  schools 
constitutes  the  inspiration  of  the  volume. 

Higher  Christian  Education— Dwight  .    .    .*i  60 

A  treatise  on  the  principles  and  spirit,  the  modes,  directions,  and  ra- 
■nlts  of  all  true  teaching ;  showing  that  right  education  should  appeal  to 
every  element  of  enthusiasm  in  the  teacher's  nature. 

Oral  Training  Lessons— Barnard  .    .    .   .    *i  oo 

The  object  of  this  very  useful  work  is  to  furnish  material  for  instruc- 
tors to  impart  orally  to  their  classes,  in  branches  not  usually  taught  in 
common  schools,  embracing  all  departments  of  Natural  Science  and 
much  general  knowledge. 

Lectures  on  Natural  History— Chadbourne    *  75 

Affording  many  themes  for  oral  mstruction  in  this  interesting  science — 
especially  in  schools  where  it  is  not  pursued  as  a  class  exercise. 

Outlines  of  Mathematical  Science— Davies  *i  oo 

A  manual  suggesting  the  best  methods  of  presenting  mathematical  in- 
struction on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  with  that  comprehensive  view  of  the 
whole  which  is  necessary  to  the  intelligent  treatment  of  a  part,  in  science. 

Nature  &  Utility  of  Mathematics— Davies .    .*i  60 

An  elaborate  and  lucid  exposition  of  the  principles  which  lie  at  the 
foundation  of  pure  mathematics,  with  a  highly  ingenious  application  of 
their  results  to  the  development  of  the  essential  idea  of  the  different 
branches  of  the  science. 

Mathematical  Dictionary— Davies  &  Peck  .*5  oo 

This  cyclopffidia  of  mathematical  science  defines  with  completenewi, 
precision,  and  accuracy,  every  technical  term,  thus  constituting  a  popular 
treatise  on  each  branch,  and  a  general  view  of  the  whole  subject. 

School  Architecture— Barnard  .....    .*2  25 

Attention  i»  here  called  to  the  vital  connection  between  a  good  school* 
house  and  a  good  school,  with  plans  and  specifications  tsit  secariBg  th« 
former  in  the  most  economical  and  aatisfaetory  manner. 

50 


JVationat  School  J^ibrary, 


THE  SCHOOL  LIBRARY. 

The  two  elements  of  inetruction  and  entertainment  were  never  more  happily  com- 
bined than  in  this  collection  of  standard  books.  Children  and  adults  alike  will  here 
find  ample  food  for  the  mind,  of  the  sort  that  is  easily  digested^  while  not  degener- 
ating to  the  level  of  modern  romance. 


LIBRARY  OF  LITERATURE. 
Milton's  Paradise  Lost.   Boyd's  niustrated  Ed.,  $1  60 
Young's  Night  Thoughts  .    .    .    .    do,    .    .    i  60 

Cowper's  Task,  Table  Talk,  &c.    •    do,    .    .    i  60 
Thomson's  Seasons  ......    do.    ..    i  60 

Pollok's  Course  of  Time  .    .    .    .    do.    .    .    i  60 

These  works,  models  of  the  best  and  purest  literature,  are  beautiftiUy  illustrated, 
and  notes  explain  all  doubtful  meanings. 

Lord  Bacon's  Essays  (Boyd's  Edition)     ...     1  60 

Another  grand  English  classic,  affording  the  highest  example  of  purity  in  lan- 
guage and  style. 

The  Iliad  of  Homer.    Translated  by  Pope.    .     .        80 

Those  who  are  unable  to  read  this  greatest  of  ancient  writers  in  tho  original, 
should  not  fail  to  avail  themselves  of  this  metrical  version. 

Compendium  of  Eng.  Literature— Cleveland,  ^  50 
English  Literature  of  XlXth  Century  do.  2  50 
Compendium  of  American  Literature    do.       2  50 

Nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  volumes  of  Prof.  Cleveland's  inimitable 
compendiums  have  been  sold.  Taken  together  they  present  a  complete  view  of 
literature.  To  the  man  who  can  afford  but  a  few  books  these  will  supply  the  place 
of  an  extensive  library.  From  commendations  of  the  very  highest  authorities  the 
following  extracts  will  give  some  idea  of  the  enthusiasm  with  which  the  works  are 
regarded  by  scholars ; 

With  the  Bible  and  your  volumes  one  might  leave  libraries  without  very  painful 
regret.— The  work  cannot  be  found  fi*om  which  in  the  same  limits  so  much  interest- 
ing and  valuable  information  may  be  obtained.  —  Good  taste,  fine  scholarship, 
familiar  acquaintance  with  literature,  unwearied  industry,  tact  acquired  by  practice, 
an  interest  in  the  culture  of  the  young,  and  regard  for  truth,  purity,  philanthropy 
and  religion  are  united  in  Mr.  Cleveland.— A  judgment  clear  and  impartial,  a  taste 
at  once  delicate  and  severe. — The  biographies  are  just  and  discriminating. — An 
admirable  bird's-eye  view.— Acquaints  the  reader  with  the  characteristic  method, 
tone,  and  quality  of  each  writer.— Succinct,  carefully  written,  and  wonderftilly  com- 
prehensive in  detail,  etc.,  etc. 

Milton's  Poetical  Works— Clevelakd  ...    2  50 

This  is  the  very  best  edition  of  the  great  Poet  It  includes  a  life  of  the  author, 
notes,  dissertations  on  each  poem,  a  faultless  text,  and  is  the  only  edition  of  Milton 
with  a  complete  verbal  Index. 

51 


jyational  School  2^ld?'ary, 


LIBRARY    OF   TRAVEL. 
Life  in  the  Sandwich  Islands— Cheever  •    •$!  so 

The  "  heart  of  the  Pacific,  as  it  \ras  and  is,'*  shows  most  rividly  the 
contrast  between  the  depth  of  degradation  and  barbarism,  and  the  light 
and  liberty  of  civilization,  s*  rapidly  realized  in  these  islands  under  the 
humanizing  influence  of  the  Christian  religion.    Illustrated. 

The  Republic  of  Liberia— Stockwell,    ...  i  25 

This  volume  treats  of  the  geography,  climate,  soil,  and  productions 
of  this  interesting  country  en  tne  coast  of  Africa,  with  a  History  of 
its  early  settlement.  Our  colored  citizens  especially,  from  whom  the 
founders  of  the  new  State  went  forth,  should  read  Mr.  Stockwell's 
account  of  it.  It  is  so  arranged  as  to  be  available  for  a  School  Reader, 
and  in  colored  schools  is  peculiarly  aijpropriate  as  an  instrument  of 
education  for  the  young.  Liberia  is  likely  to  bear  an  important  part 
in  the  future  of  their  race. 

Ancient  Monasteries  of  the  East— Curzon  •  i  ^o 

The  exploration  of  these  ancient  seats  of  learning"  ha*  thrown  much 
light  upon  the  researches  of  the  historian,  the  philologist,  and  the  theo- 
logian^ as  well  as  the  general  student  of  antiquity.    Illustrated. 

Discoveries  in  Babylon  &  Nineveh— Layard  i  75 

Taluable  alike  for  the  information  imparted  with  regard  to  these  most 
interesting  ruins,  and  the  pleasant  adventures  and  observations  of  the 
amthor  in  regions  that  to  most  men  seem  like  Fairyland.    Illustrated. 

A  Run  Through  Europe— Benedict,  •   •   •    •  2  oo 

A  work  replete  with  instruction  and  interest. 

St.  Petersburgh— Jermann ^  ^^ 

Americans  are  less  familiar  with  the  history  and  social  customs  of  th« 
Russian  people  than  those  of  any  other  modem  civilized  nation.  Oppor- 
tunities such  as  this  book  affords  are  not,  therefore,  to  be  neglected. 

The  Polar  Regions— Osborn .  i  25 

A  thrilling  and  intensely  interesting  narratire  of  one  of  the  famous  ex- 
peditions in  search  of  Sir  John  FranMin-unsuccessfui  in  its  mam  object, 
lut  adding  many  facts  to  the  repertoire  of  science. 

Thirteen  Months  in  the  Confederate  Army     75 

The  author,  a  northern  man  conscripted  into  the  Confederate  service, 
and  rising  from  the  ranks  by  soldierly  conduct  to  positions  of  responsi- 
bility,  had  remarkable  opportunities  for  the  acquiwtion  of  facts  respect- 
ing the  conduct  of  the  Southern  armies,  and  the  policy  and  deeds  of  their 
leaders.  He  participated  in  many  engagements,  and  his  book  is  one  of 
the  most  exciting  narratives  of  adventure  ever  pubhshed.  Mr.  Ste^ea- 
Bon  takes  no  ground  as  a  partizan,  but  views  the  whole  subject  as  with  th« 
•ytt  of  a  neutral— only  interested  in  subserving  the  endi  of  history  by  »• 
ContrUdutiou  «f  Impartiai  foots.    Illustrated. 

52 


JVationat  School  Z,ibrary, 


LIBRARY  OP  HISTORY. 
History  of  Europe— Alison     $2  50 

A  reliable  and  standard  work,  which  covers  with  clear,  connected, 
and  complete  narrative,  the  eventful  occurrences  transpiring  from 
A.  D.  1789  to  1815,  being  mainly  a  history  of  the  career  of  Napoleon 
Bonaparte. 

History  of  England— Berard i  75 

Combining  a  history  of  the  social  life  of  the  English  people  with  that 
of  the  civil  and  military  transactions  of  the  realm. 

History  of  Rome— Ricord  . i  60 

Possesses  all  the  charm  ef  an  attractive  romance.  The  fables  with 
which  this  history  abounds  are  introduced  in  such  away  as  not  to  deceive 
the  inexperienced  reader,  while  adding  vastly  to  the  interest  of  the  work 
and  affording  a  pleasing  index  to  the  genius  of  the  Roman  people.  Illus- 
trated. 

The  Republic  of  America— Willard  •    •       •  2  25 
Universal  History  in  Perspective— Willard  2  25 

From  these  two  comparatively  brief  tareatises  the  intelligent  mind  may 
obtain  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  world  in  both 
hemispheres.  Mrs.  Willard' s  reputation  as  an  historian  is  wide  as  the 
land.    Illustrated. 

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A  history  of  the  Church  in  all  ages,  with  a  comprehensive  review  of  all 
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The  record  of  "  God's  people"  from  the  call  of  Abraham  to  the  destruc- 
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A  work  of  value  and  deep  interest  to  the  people  of  the  West.  Com- 
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A  pithy  and  interesting  resum^.  Copiously  illustrated.  The  State 
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53 


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2  vols. 4:  60 

This  great  American  statesman  commands  the  admiration,  and  Ids 
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Life  &  Services  of  General  Scott— Mansfield  i  75 

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An  exhaustive  analysis  of  the  conditions  of  life  in  all  animate  nature. 
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The  elements  of  astronomy  in  a  compact  and  readable  form.  Illus- 
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The  subject  ig  here  ccnsidered  in  its  nelations  to  intellect,  taste,  health, 
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American  Institutions— De  Tocqueville    .    .    i  50 
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56 


J^atio7iat  School  Ijlbrary. 


LIBRARY   OF  REFERENCE. 
Home  Cyclopaedia  of  Chronology ^3  oo 

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Home  Cyclopaedia  of  Literature  &  Fine  Arts    3  oo 

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The  Rhyming  Dictionary— Walker    ....    i  25 

A  serviceable  manual  to  composers,  being  a  complete  index  of  allowable  rhymes. 

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The  useful  terms  of  the  English  language  classified  by  subjects  and  arranged  ac- 
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Preparation  for  the  Holy  Communion. 

Chrysostom,  or  the  Mouth  of  Gold— Johnson    i  oo 

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The  Memorial  Pulpit— Robinson.    ^  vols.,  each  i  50 

A  series  of  wide-awake  sermons  by  the  popular  pastor  of  the  Memorial  Presby- 
terian ClHirch,  New  York. 

Responsive  Worship— Budington 60 

An  argument  in  favor  of  alternate  Scripture  reading  by  Pastor  and  Congregation. 

Lady  Willoughby i  oo 

The  diary  of  a  wife  and  mother.    An  historical  romance  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury.   At  once  beautiful  and  pathetic,  entertaining  and  instructive. 

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Most  of  the  standard  hymns  have  undergone  modification  or  abridgment  by  com- 
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Poets'  Gift  of  Consolation   ■    •   • i  so 

A  beautiftil  selection  of  poems  referring  to  the  death  of  children. 

57 


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School  I^urniture, 


FURNITURE. 


(SUPPLIED  BY  THE  NATIONAL  SCHOOL  FUENITCEE  CO.) 

PEARD'S  PATENT  FOLDING  DESK  AND  SETTEE. 

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ing demand  as  to  tax  the  utmost  resources  of  the  company's  iwo  factories  to  sup- 
ply it.  By  a  simple  movement  the  desk-lid  is  folded  away  over  the  back  of  the 
settee  attached  in  front,  making  a  false  back,  and  at  once  converting  the  school- 
room into  a  lecture  or  assembly-room.  When  the  seat  also  is  folded,  the  whole 
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and  studies  in  an  erect  posture.  As  a  folding-desk  this  offers  many  of  the  same 
advantages  as  the  "  Peard." 

THE  GEM  DESK  AND  SETTEE. 

Fixed  top,  and  folding  seat.  This  is  the  neatest  pattern  of  the  Standard  School 
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THE  ECONOMIC  DESK  AND  SETTEE. 

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All  descriptions  of 

JHIGH  SCHOOL  DESKS,  SCHOOL  SETTEES, 

TEACHERS'  DESKS,  CHURCH  SETTEES, 

BLACKBOARDS,  PEW  ENDS, 

CHAIRS,  LECTERNS,  Etc. 

AtM, 

CLASS   AND   LECTURE   CHAIR. 

The  difficulty  of  reconciling  furniture  appropriate  for  the  Lecture-room  or 
Church  with  that  convenient  ft)r  the  Sunday-school  is  an  old  one.  This  article 
eftectually  remedies  it.  It  consists  simply  of  a  plan  by  which  chairs  of  a  somewhat 
peculiar  shape  are  connected  with  a  coupling.  The  rows  of  chairs  thus  adjusted 
may  at  pleasure  and  with  ease  be  spread  out  straight  in  one  line,  forming  pews  or 
benches ;  or  they  may  be  bent  in  an  instant  into  a  semi-circular  form  to  accomo- 
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For  further  particulars,  consult  catalogues  of  the  National  School  Furniture  Co. 
aad  the  Taylor  Patent  C^ialr  Co.,  whieh  may  be  obtained  of  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co. 

59 


The  JSnationat  Series  of  Standard  School-^Sooks. 


GENERAL   INDEX   TO 

A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co/s  Descriptive  Catalogue. 


PAGB 

Acoustics 28 

Aesthetics 36 

Algebra 17 

Analysis 10 

Anatomy 32 

Apparatus 47 

Arithmetic 17,  20 

Astronomy 32,  34 

Belles  Lettres 36 

BiBLB 7,21 

Biography 55 

Book-keeping 25 

Botany 30 

Calculus 17,  20 

Cards  (for  Wall) 7,47 

Chairs 59 

Charts 7,8,10,47 

Chemical  Apparatus 30 

Chemistry 30,  34 

Church  Music 58 

Civil  Government 39,  57 

Composition 38 

Copy  Books —  24 

Criticism 36 

Depiners 8 

Desks 59 

Devotion 27,  58 

Dialogues 38 

Dictation 8 

Dictionaries 9, 17,  50,  51 

Drawing 26 

Elocution 7,  38 

English  Grammar .• 10 

English  Literature 36 

Ethics 39 

Etymology 8,  9 

Examples  in  Arithmetic 80 


Familiar  Science. 

French 

Furniture 


Geography 12, 14 

Geology 28,  34 

Geometry ' 17,  20 

German 40,  42 

Government 39,  57 

Grammar 10,17,40,42,44 

Greek 44 

History 21, 22,  54 

Intellectual  Phuobopht 39 


Ebtb. 


Latin 44 

Lexicons 9, 17,  51 

Library 48-57 

Literature 1,  7,  36,  51 

Logic 17,  39 

Map-Drawing 12,  26 

Maps 12,  47 

Mathematics 17,  20 

Mechanics 28 

Mental  Philosophy 39 

Morals 39 

Music , 27,  58 

Mythology 44,  57 

Natural  History 82,  50,  56 

Natural  Philosophy 28,  34 

Natural  Science 28-35,  56 

Navigation 17 

Object  Lessons 30,48 

Optics 28 

Orthography 1,8 

Penmanship 24 

Pens 24 

Philosophy,  Intellectual 39 

Do.         Natural 28,34 

Physiology 32 

Poetry 36,  51 

Political  Economy 36,  57 

Political  Science 39,  5T 

Prayer 27,  58 

Primers 1 


Readers  . . 
Records.  . . 
Rhetoric.  . 


1,7 
..  46 


'10,17,84     ZooLOGT.. 

GO 


School  Library 51-57 

Settees 59 

Slated  Books 17,  20 

Spanish 40 

Speakers 38 

Spellers 1,  8 

Surveying 17 

Synonyms 9 

Tablets 7,  47 

Tactics 46 

Teachers'  Library 48-50 

Travel 53 

Trigonometry 17,  20 

Virgil 44 

Writing 8,  9,  24 

Written  Spbllino 1, 8,  9 

, 83 


aiii^s'  lila!kmalic0* 


-<-*-»  ♦  ■' » 


And  Only  Thorough  and  Complete  Mathematical  Series. 


Iisr     TKCI^-EE     I=.A.I^TS- 


A   COMMON  SCHOOL   COURSE. 

Da  vies'  Primary  Arithmetic— The  fundamental  principles  displayed  in 

Object  Lessons. 
Davies'  Intellectual  Arithmetic— Referring  all  operations  to  the  unit  1  as 

the  only  tangible  basis  for  logical  development. 
Davies'  Blements  of  Written  Arithmetic— A  practical  introduction  to 

the  whole  subject.    Theory  subordinated  to  Practice. 
Davies*  Practical  Arithmetic*— The  most  successM  combination  of  Theory 

and  Practice,  clear,  exact,  brief,  and  somprehensive, 

II.  ACADEMIC  COURSE. 

Davies'  University  Arithmetic*— Treating  the  subject  exhaustively  as 

a  science^  in  a  logical  series  of  connected  propositions. 
Davies'  Elementary  Alg-ebra-*— A  connecting  link,  conducting  the  pupil 

easily  from  arithmetical  processes  to  abstract  analysis. 
Davies'  University  Algebra**— Por  institutions  desiring  a  more  complete 

but  not  the  fullest  course  in  pure  Algebra. 
Davies'  Practical  3^athematics>— The  pclenoe  practically  applied  to  the 

useftd  arts,  as  Drawing,  Architecture,  Surveying,  Mechanics,  etc. 
Davies'  Elementary  Geometry* — The  important  principles  m  simple  form, 

but  with  all  the  exactness  of  vigorous  reasoning. 
Davies'  Elements  of  Surveying:-— Re-written  In  18T0.     The  simplest  and 

most  practical  presentation  for  youths  of  12  to  16. 

///.  COLLEGIATE  COURSE. 

Davies^  Bourdon's  Alg-ebra- *— Embracing  Sturm's   Theorem,  and  a  most 
exhaustive  and  scholarly  course. 

Davies'  University  Algebra- *— A  shorter  course  than  Bourdon,  for  Institu- 
tions have  less  time  to  give  the  subject. 

Davies'  laegendre's  Geometry-— Acknowledged  ^A^  onfy  satisCictory  treatise 
of  its  grade.    300,000  copies  have  been  sold. 

Davies'  Analytical  Geometry  and  Calculus-— The  shorter  treatises, 
combined  in  one  volume,  are  more  available  for  American  courses  of  study. 

Davies'  Analytical  Geometry-  j.  The  original  compendiums,  for  those  de- 

Davies'  DifiT-  &  Int-  Calculus-    '     siring  to  give  full  time  to  each  branch. 

Davies'  Descriptive  Geometry-— With  application  to  Spherical  Trigonome- 
try, Spherical  Projections,  and  Warped  Surfaces. 

Davies'  Shades,  Shadows,  and  Perspective-— A  euccinct  exposition  of 
the  mathematical  principles  involved. 

Davies'  Science  of  IVIathematics-— For  teachers,  embracing 

I.  Grammar  of  Arithmetic,  III.  Logic  and  UTrLiTx  of  Mathematics, 

IL  Outlines  of  Mathematics,  IV.  Mathematical  Bictionaky. 


KEYS  MAT  BB  OBTAINED  FROM  THE  PUBLISHERS 

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